维基百科

注意力不足過動症

最常見的兒童青少年心理疾患，主要症狀是注意力不足及過動
（重定向自注意力缺陷過動症）
「过动症」重定向至此。關於膀胱的疾病，請見「膀胱過動症」。
维基百科中的醫學内容仅供参考，並不能視作專業意見。如需獲取醫療幫助或意見，请咨询专业人士。詳見醫學聲明。

注意力不足過動症（英語：attention deficit hyperactivity disorder，縮寫为ADHD），是一种神經發展障礙[10][11]。主要表现为難以專注、過度活躍、做事不考慮後果等。除此之外，还存在不合年紀的行為且存在注意力缺失问题的患者也可能表現出情緒調節困難或執行功能方面的問題[1][12]。對於診斷來說，症狀應在患者12歲之前出現、持續超過六個月、至少發生於兩種情境下（如學校、家中、休閒活動等）[3][4]。兒童患者注意力不集中的問題可能導致學習成績不佳[1]，此外，此病症也跟其他心智障礙或藥物濫用有關[13]。雖然此病症（特別是在現代社會中）會造成一些「障礙」，但很多過動症者會對他們感興趣或認為有價值的任務保持持續的專注，此狀況被稱為過度專注[14][15]。

注意力不足過動症（ADHD）
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
又称注意力缺失症、注意力缺陷過動症、過度活躍症、hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
注意力不足過動症的常見症狀
注意力不足過動症的常見症狀
症状容易分心（英语：attentional shift）（難以把專注力放對地方）、過度的活動、 難以控制行為和衝動[1][2]
起病年龄6 - 12歲左右[3][4]
病程多於6個月[3]
类型特殊性发育障碍、多动障碍[*]、疾病、神经发育障碍
病因遗传因素（遗传、新生變異（英语：De novo mutation）），較小程度是环境因素（怀孕期间接触生物危害、创伤性脑损伤）
診斷方法根據症狀並排除其他可能的致病原因。[1]
鑑別診斷品行障碍、對立反抗症、學習障礙、躁鬱症[5]、自閉症光譜、睡眠障礙[6]、焦慮症[6]、憂鬱症[6]
治療心理治療、改變生活方式、藥物[1]
藥物中樞神經刺激劑、阿托莫西汀、胍法辛[7][8]
患病率5,110萬（2015年）[9]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神醫學、兒童與青少年精神醫學
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90.0
OMIM143465、​608903、​608904、​608905、​608906、​612311、​612312
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePluswillem
eMedicine289350、​912633
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
「ADHD」的各地常用譯名
中国大陸注意缺陷多动障碍
臺灣注意力不足過動症
香港專注力失調/過度活躍症
澳門專注力失調/過度活躍症
日本注意欠陥・多動性障害
大韓民國注意力缺乏過多行動障礙
注意力缺乏 過剩行動 症候群
越南𦇒亂增動減注意

儘管此病症在小孩與青年的範圍中被大量的研究以及診斷，多數的例子中，仍然找不到精確的病因，他們認為基因的原因占了75%，在懷孕期間尼古丁的接觸也可能是一個導致病因的外部風險，似乎跟自律以及家庭風格沒有關係[16]。依照《精神障碍诊断与统计手册》第四版（DSM-IV）的準則，約有5–7%的兒童確診[12][17]，若依照《国际疾病分类》第十版ICD-10的準則，則有1–2%確診[18]。2015年估計全球有5110萬人受到注意力不足過動症的影響[9]。盛行率主要會受到診斷方式及判斷基準不同所影響[19]，男孩確診的比例是女孩的二倍以上[12]，不過因為女孩的症狀和男孩不同，因此常被忽略[20][21][22]。兒童期診斷到的注意力不足過動症，約到30–50%會持續到成年，成年人約有2–5%會有成人注意力不足過動症[23][24][25]。在成人注意力不足過動症中，過動的情形可能會被「內在的不安寧」所取代[26]。ADHD的症狀可能不太容易和其他疾病的症狀區分，也不太容易區分正常範圍的活力充沛以及過動的分界點在哪裡[4]。

建議治療的方法依國家不同而有所差異，一般都會以心理治療、生活方式調整以及藥物，這三種中的一種或多種方式來進行治療[1]。英國的醫學指南建議針對兒童，只有在症狀嚴重時，才建議使用藥物為第一線的療法，若兒童拒絕接受心理治療，或是接受治療後進展不大，需考慮用藥物進行治療，若針對成人，藥物為第一線的治療方式[27]。加拿大及美國則是建議第一線的治療應該是合併藥物治療及行為治療，只有一些學齡前的兒童例外[28][29]。在所有的醫學指南中，都不建議針對學齡前的兒童用興奮劑作為第一線的治療方式[27][29]。用興奮劑治療，在前十四個月的療效有研究資料可供佐證，不過不確定長期使用的療效[30][31][32]。患有ADHD的成人可能會發展出應對方法（英语：Coping_(psychology)），來處理症狀造成的部份或所有影響[33]。

18世紀起的醫學文獻中就有描述過類似注意力不足過動症的症狀[34]。自1970年起，就有出現有關注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及治療方式的爭議[35]，爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。爭議焦點包括ADHD的病因，以及是否要用興奮劑來治療ADHD[36]。目前大部份的醫療人員都接受ADHD是兒童及成人的遺傳性疾病，科學界的爭議點則是在其診斷方式及治療方式[37][38][39]。此疾病在1980年至1987年的正式名稱是注意力缺失症（attention-deficit disorder，簡稱ADD），在更早期的名稱是兒童過度活躍的反應（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood）[40][41]。

名稱

注意力不足過動症也译作注意力不集中/過動症（英語：Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder，簡稱AD/HD）、過度活躍症（英語：Hyperkinetic Disorder；於ICD 10中的名稱），俗称有多動症、多動障礙及大雄·胖虎症候群（日本）等。此病患的兒童習稱過動兒，也有醫療人士建議改稱為心動兒[42][43]。

症狀及體徵

ADHD的症狀[44]
專注力失調 過動-衝動
  • 很難注意事情的細節
  • 不容易專注在一件事情上
  • 不容易針對事物或是活動進行規劃組織
  • 會遺忘一些需要的物品
  • 在日常活動中比較健忘
  • 注意力持續時間較短，較容易分心
  • 不容易處理較具結構性的學校功課
  • 難以完成繁瑣或需要花時間的任務
  • 沒辦法好好坐著
  • 在座位上坐立不安、動來動去
  • 會在不適當的時間點離開座位
  • 從事具風險性的事物，不太考慮後果
  • 時常處於活躍狀態、精力充沛、停不下來
  • 說話的頻率及時間會比其他人要多
  • 問題未說完就搶著說答案
  • 不容易輪流等候
  • 在對話中常常插嘴或是打斷別人說話

注意力不足過動症的常見情形有不專心、過動（在成人則會以不安來表現）、破壞行為及衝動[45][46]。在人際關係及學業上都容易出現問題[45]，不過其症狀不容易定義，因為很難介定一般情形下的不專心、過動及衝動會到什麼程度，到什麼情形下才需要介入治療[47]。

依照《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》（DSM）第五版（DSM-5）的定義，注意力不足過動症的症狀需出現超過六個月，或是其情形要比同年齡的要明顯很多[12]，而且其症狀已造成至少二個情境（例如社交、學校/工作、家庭）的問題[12]，這些條件需在12歲以前就出現[12]，若是17歲以下者，在專注力失調或是過動/衝動上的症狀，至少需要有六項符合，17歲以上者則需要至少五項符合[12]。

子類型

注意力不足過動症可分為三個子類型[12][47]:

若是以注意力不足（專注力失調）為主的兒童或青少年，會有以下大部份甚至全部的症狀，且非由其他醫學疾病或藥物直接造成[12][48]：

  • 容易分心、粗心、忘記事情、且經常從一件事情切換至另一件事情。
  • 很難持續專注在同一件事情上。
  • 除非進行自身有興趣的事務，不然進行幾分鐘後就覺得無聊。
  • 難以對組織（規劃）事情、完成一個任務保持專注。
  • 很難完成回家作業，或是如期繳交，常會遺失一些要完成作業或是其他活動需要的東西（例如鉛筆、玩具、作業等）*
  • 當別人在和患者說話時，似乎沒有在聽對方說話。
  • 作白日夢、很感到困惑、動作緩慢。
  • 不容易像其他非注意力不足過動症患者一樣，快速且準確的處理資訊。
  • 難以遵從指示
  • 不容易認知細節，常忽略細節。

若是以過動為主的兒童或青少年，會有以下大部份甚至全部的症狀且非由其他醫學疾病或藥物直接造成[12][48]：

  • 常常煩躁及坐立不安
  • 不停地講話
  • 四處東奔西跑、碰觸或玩弄視野內的任一或每一個物體。
  • 難以在上課時間、吃飯時間、做功課的時間乖乖坐好。
  • 不停的動來動去。
  • 不容易進行安靜的活動或是工作。
  • 沒有耐心
  • 脫口說出不恰當的話語、毫無掩飾地流露內心的想法，且行事不顧後果。
  • 難耐在遊戲中因輪流所產生的等待時間。
  • 經常打斷他人的對話或活動。

若注意力不足過動症患者的症狀符合上述二類，則屬於合併型的注意力不足過動症。

ADHD的女性比較不會有過動及衝動的症狀，比較會有注意力不集中及分心的症狀[49]。注意力不足過動症中有關過動的症狀，可能會隨著年齡增長而漸漸消退，而轉變為青少年及成人階段的「內在不安寧」[23]。

注意力不足過動症的兒童、青少年及成年比較容易有社交技巧上的問題，例如社交互動、發展友誼及建立友誼。有半數的注意力不足過動症患者曾受到同儕社會排斥的情形，而沒有注意力不足過動症的人被社會排斥的比例約為10%至15%。患有注意力不足過動症的人比較不容易處理口語及非語言的訊息，比較容易在社交互動上有負面的影響，也比較容易在對話時離題、忽略到一些社交的資訊、也比較不容易學習社交技能[50]。

注意力不足過動症的兒童比較常有不容易控制情緒的問題[51]，其寫字（英语：handwriting）能力也比較弱[52]，在語言、說話及運動上的發展都比較晚[53][54]。雖然注意力不足過動症會造成許多的不便，不過若注意力不足過動症的兒童針對有興趣的主題及事物，其專注力持續時間和其他兒童相當，甚至比其他兒童要好[15]。

可能有關的疾病

在注意力不足過動症患者中，大約會有三分之二的機率會伴隨其他的疾病或特徵[15]。常見的共病或特徵如下：

  • 癫痫[55]
  • 妥瑞症[55]
  • 自閉症光譜（ASD）：此疾病會影響社交技巧、溝通能力，也會出現固定興趣和重複行為[55]。
  • 在注意力不足過動症患者中，較常出現有焦虑症的情形[56]。
  • 間歇性暴怒症[12]
  • 在注意力不足過動症的兒童中，有20%至30%有學習障礙的情形。學習障礙可能包括發展障礙、語言障礙以及學習技巧的障礙[57]。注意力不足過動症本身不是一種學習障礙，不過常常會造成其他學業上的困難[57]。
  • 强迫症（OCD）常和注意力不足過動症一起出現，其中也有許多相同的特徵[58]。
  • 智能障礙[12]
  • 反應性依附疾患（英语：Reactive attachment disorder）[12]
  • 物質使用疾患。注意力不足過動症的兒童及成人在物質濫用上的風險較高[23]。最常見的是酒或是大麻[23]。物質使用疾患的原因可能和注意力不足過動症造成的大腦回饋酬賞迴路（英语：reward pathway）改變有關[23]。若注意力不足過動症和物質使用疾患一起出現，這會讓注意力不足過動症的評估及治療更加困難。如果ADHD合併「嚴重的」物質濫用問題，基於往後衍生的風險大小之考量，會優先治療物質濫用問題[59][60]。
  • 睡眠障碍常和ADHD一起出現。這也可能是治療ADHD的副作用。對於注意力不足過動症的兒童而言，失眠是最常見的睡眠障碍，一般會用行為療法來進行治療[61][62]。 ADHD患者常伴隨著不容易入睡的問題，而他們也會睡的比較熟，因此早上不容易起床[63]，有時會針對不容易入睡的兒童用褪黑素治療[64]。
  • ADHD的患者約有50%有對立反抗症（ODD），有20%有行為規範障礙（CD）[65]，其特性是反社會的行為，例如心態固執、有攻擊性、常常鬧脾氣（英语：temper tantrums）、說謊和偷竊等[58]。若有對立反抗症或行為規範障礙的ADHD患者，長大成人後出現反社会人格障碍的機率約有一半[66]。根據腦部造影，可確認ADHD和行為規範障礙是兩種不同的疾病[67]。
  • 有關注意力的原發型疾病，其症狀是注意力不佳，不容易專注，也不容易維持清醒。這類兒童常會坐立不安、打呵欠及伸展身體，這些動作看似過動，但其實是為了讓自己維持警覺以及有活力的狀態[68]。
  • 遲緩的認知速率（英语：Sluggish cognitive tempo）（SCT）是許多症狀的總稱，其中不少症狀可能也包括了注意力不足的問題。在ADHD的個案中，不論其子類型如何，有30%至50%符合這些症狀[69]。
  • 刻板的慣性動作症（英语：Stereotypic movement disorder）[12]
  • 情感障礙（特別是躁鬱症及重度抑郁症）。診斷患有混合子類型ADHD的男孩較容易有情感障礙[56]。有ADHD的成人有時也會有躁鬱症，需要很仔細的評估來診斷及治療這兩種疾病[70]。
  • 注意力不足過動症的患者較常有不寧腿綜合症，一般是因為缺鐵性貧血所造成[71][72]。不過不寧腿綜合症也可能是注意力不足過動症症狀的一部份，因此需要進行詳細的診斷，區分不寧腿綜合症和注意力不足過動症[73]。
  • 注意力不足過動症的患者出現夜遺尿的風險較高[74]。

有一個2016年的系統回顧發現注意力不足過動症和肥胖、哮喘及睡眠障礙有有著直接的關聯，和乳糜泻和偏頭痛也有一些關係[75]。不過同一年的另一篇系統回顧認為注意力不足過動症和乳糜泻沒有明確關係[76]。

智力

有研究發現患有注意力不足過動症的人其智商（IQ）測試的結果會比沒有注意力不足過動症的人要低[77]，不過有關此研究結果的重要性，目前仍有爭議，因為很難區分影響是因為ADHD的症狀（例如分心）所造成還是ADHD本身對於智力有影響[77]。

有一份成人ADHD的研究指出有關ADHD患者在智力上的差異，沒有統計上的意義，也可以用其他相關的疾病來解釋[78]。

有一份最新的研究報告指出，智能障礙的病患罹患ADHD的機率相比其他人較為提高；而若親屬中有人為智能障礙者的話，家族中其他成員罹患ADHD的機率（相比於親屬中沒有智能障礙者）也較高。根據擬和模型的分析，造成這種情況的原因有91%的可能性與基因有關。[79]

診斷

主条目：注意力不足過動症的診斷

注意力不足過動症的診斷是根據患者的行為和心理發展的評鑑並且排除毒品、藥物的影響、或其他生理或心理的可能造成類似ADHD症狀的因素而成。[59]診斷過程通常會將個案的父母意見及師長意見列入考量。[4] 大多數的診斷都是因為個案的教師首先對於孩子的健康提出關切，經轉介後而成。[80] 注意力不足過動症的症狀可能會被認為是人類個性光譜的極端或是其中一環而已。[81] 對於ADHD的藥物反應結果，無法就此確認診斷或排除診斷。迄今為止ADHD與非ADHD病患腦部構造的差異方面，學界尚未達成一致結論，因此腦部造影只被用於對於複雜的人腦進一步的研究，尚未能應用於診斷ADHD。[82]使用量化腦波（英语：quantitative electroencephalography） (QEEG) 診斷ADHD是學界中正在研究的領域之一，然而迄今為止，腦波經過量化後的數值與ADHD之間的關係仍然不明。[83][84]

注意力不足過動症又可細分為以下三種類型：注意力不足（專注力失調）為主型、過動-衝動為主型、或注意力不足（專注力失調）且過動-衝動的混合型。[85]過動，即為「過度」活躍。過度兩字意味著活躍的程度已經對生活造成不良的影響。[86]即便個案並無上述注意力不足過動症的所有特徵，他仍有可能是ADHD患者，有無全部特徵牽涉到是否有其他共病存在且治療的主要目的在於協助患者避免缺點並發揚優點。成人及兒童青少年的注意力不足過動症的診斷依據《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》的標準、患者的歷史經歷（個案史）[85]、門診病人的主訴、症狀學、發展史、家族史、共病、生理評估、心理測驗（例如：工作記憶、執行功能：計畫與決策等、視覺記憶、空間記憶、理智等等[87]）及各種醫師評估後認為需要進一步的檢查等。[6][88][87]

ADHD隸屬於神經發育所致之精神疾患[11][23]。 除此之外，ADHD也隸屬於紊亂行為症候群（英语：disruptive behavior disorder），同樣隸屬於紊亂行為症候群的心理疾病有：對立反抗症、品行障碍、和反社会人格障碍[89]。ADHD的診斷並不暗指任何一個神經系統疾病（英语：neurological disorder）[90]。

醫師在診斷過程中必須衡量個案的焦慮、憂鬱程度、及對立反抗症、品行障碍、及學習和語言障礙。其他需要考量的問題包括：其他神經發育障礙、抽动综合症、和睡眠呼吸暂停[91]。

自我評量表，例如：ADHD 評量表（英语：ADHD rating scale）和Vanderbilt ADHD診斷評量表（英语：Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale）會在診斷和評估ADHD的過程中使用。[92]

病因學

 
ADHD患者的腦部與非ADHD患者（Typically developing controls）的腦部造影顯示的大腦發育成熟度的差異[93][94]。

迄今為止，注意力不足過動症是兒童精神病學，獲得最多且最深入研究的領域，然而絕大多數ADHD的確切成因目前並沒有定論[95]，最有可能是基因、環境和社會等因素交互作用導致。[96][97][98][99]

有些個案的成因可能與腦部的疾病感染和腦部創傷有關。[96][97][98]根據研究統計，注意力不足過動症具有相當高的遺傳率。[96][97]除了基因外，一些環境及社會因子也可能是注意力不足過動症的致病因素。[100][101][90]

基因遺傳

双生子研究指出此疾病常常是遺傳得來的，佔了所有案例的75%[90][102][103]。若一兒童的兄弟姊妹中有患有ADHD，其自己身罹患ADHD的機率，是兄弟姊妹都沒有ADHD的兒童的三至四倍[104]。一般也認為基因因素會決定ADHD的症狀是否會持續到成年[105]。

一般來說，ADHD和許多基因有關，特別是和會影響多巴胺神經傳導的基因有關[106][107]。和多巴胺有關的有多巴胺轉運體（DAT）、多巴胺受体D4（DRD4）、多巴胺受体D5（英语：DRD5）、痕量胺相關受體1（英语：TAAR1）、單胺氧化酶A（英语：MAOA）、儿茶酚-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）及多巴胺β羟化酶（DBH）[107][108][109]，其他和ADHD有關的有血清素轉運體（SERT）、HTR1B（英语：HTR1B）、SNAP25（英语：SNAP25）、GRIN2A（英语：GRIN2A）、ADRA2A（英语：ADRA2A）、TPH2（英语：TPH2）及脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）[106][107]。有一種常見的Latrophilin 3（英语：Latrophilin 3）基因變異，估計造成9%的ADHD，若有這種變異時，會對興奮劑藥物格外有反應[110]。DRD4 7R變體基因會增強多巴胺造成的抑制作用，也和ADHD有關。DRD4受體是G蛋白偶联受体，會抑制腺苷酸环化酶。DRD4-7R變異會造成許多行為上的表型，包括反映了注意力分散的ADHD症狀[111]。

演化也可能是造成ADHD高比率的原因，特別是男性過動以及衝動的傾向[112]，有人曾提出假說，認為女性比較容易被會冒險的男性所吸引，因此增加了基因庫中愛好衝動及冒險的基因的比率[113]。其他人則認為這種傾向有助於男性面對有壓力或是危險的環境（例如更有衝勁，從事探索行為）[112][113]。在特定情境下，ADHD傾向雖然對個體是有害的，但是對群體是有益的[112][113][114]。ADHD雖然對個體可能不利，但其高比例以及異質性也有利於群體的生殖健康，並且可以增加基因庫的多樣性，對群體有益[114]。在特定環境下，ADHD也可能對個體有利，例如對捕食者的反應更快，以及較好的狩獵技巧（英语：Hunter vs. farmer hypothesis）等[115]。

患有唐氏综合征的人比較容易患有ADHD[116]。

環境因素

除了基因外，一些環境因子也可能是注意力不足過動症的致病因素[117]。例如：在懷孕期間攝取酒精可能導致胎兒酒精譜系障礙，可能包括了注意力不足過動症，或是有類似症狀[118]。暴露在特定有毒物質，例如：鉛或多氯聯苯等，可能會產生類似注意力不足過動症的中毒症狀[16][119]。暴露在磷酸酯的殺蟲劑毒死蜱及烷基磷酸酯（英语：Alkyl phosphate）中，也可能會增加患病的風險，不過此一論點尚未受到廣泛認可[120]。在懷孕過程中吸菸，將不利於胚胎的腦部神經發育，並將增加罹患注意力不足過動症的機率[16][121]。

新生兒極度早產、体重過輕、極端疏於照料、遭受凌虐、缺乏社會的互動也會增加ADHD的風險[16][122]。母親在懷孕期間、兒童在出生時或成長初期遭受一些疾病的感染都可能提高致病率（例如麻疹、, 帶狀皰疹（英语：Varicella zoster virus）、脑炎、風疹、EV71等）[123]。長時間於妊娠期間使用對乙醯胺酚與孩子出生後帶有ADHD，有統計上的相關性[124][125]。創傷性腦損傷的兒童中，後來至少有30%有ADHD的症狀[126]，其中約有5%是因為腦部損傷[127]。

一些研究發現，人工食用色素或防腐劑可能與少部分兒童出現類似ADHD的症狀，或者是與ADHD的流行率增加有關[16][128]，但是這些研究的證據力薄弱，而且可能只適用於有食物敏感的孩子[128][129][130]。英国及欧洲联盟已針對這些疑慮發布相關食品管理措施[131]。對於某些食物的食物過敏或食物不耐症，可能會惡化少數孩子既有的ADHD症狀[132]。

截至2018年11月，研究並不支持注意力不足過動症是因為攝取過多的精緻糖、看太多電視、教養方式（英语：parenting）、貧窮或家庭吵吵鬧鬧所造成，不過這些可能會讓一些注意力不足過動症的症狀更加惡化[46]。

社會

有些情形下，ADHD的患者不是其自身的問題，而是反映了家庭機能不全或是教育系統的不足[133]。也有一種情形，診斷出ADHD表示其他人對其課業期待的增加，因為在一些國家，診斷是一種讓家長取得更多對小孩經濟及教育支持的方式[127]。一般有經歷過暴力或是情感虐待的兒童比較容易出現ADHD的行為[90]。

ADHD的社會建構理論（英语：social construct theory of ADHD）認為評斷正常及異常的標準是社會建構的（是由社會中的所有人建立並且使其有效的，特別是医生、病患、家長、教師等），然後再主觀的評估及判斷要使用哪一種準則，以及有多少人會因此受到影響[134]。他們認為這是依DSM-IV標準診斷到的ADHD人數會是由ICD-10標準所診斷人數三至四倍的原因[22]。湯瑪士·薩斯是ADHD社會建構理論的支持者，他認為ADHD是「發明出來的，之後取了這個名字」[135]。

班上裡年齡最小的兒童比較容易診斷為ADHD，原因可能是他們的發展本來就比其他年齡略長幾個月到一年的同學要晚一些[136][137][138]，在許多國家都有出現這種情形[138]，他們使用ADHD藥物的比例也是其他同學的兩倍左右[139]。

病理生理學

主条目：注意力不足過動症的病理生理學
 
ADHD的左前額葉通常與控制組（非ADHD患者）顯著不同[140][141]。

注意力不足過動症被認為是肇因於部分腦內的神經傳導物質系統的損傷（特別是與多巴胺和正腎上腺素有關的神經傳導系統），進而對患者的腦部執行功能產生不良的影響[142][140]。多巴胺與正腎上腺素的腦內神經傳導物質通道系統（英语：Neural_pathway）大多起源自腦內的腹側被蓋區和藍斑核，並由此投射至不同的腦區且管理許多認知的流程（與認知功能相關的處理流程）。[142][143]特別是那些投射至前額葉和紋狀體的腦內多巴胺神經傳導通道系統（英语：dopaminergic pathway）和腦內正腎上腺素通道系統/藍斑核系統。它們主要的工作就是負責調節執行功能（認知和行為的功能與管理）、動機、 酬賞/報償的感受能力、和運動神經的功能[註 1]。[142][140][143]以上是目前已知在注意力不足過動症的病理生理學中扮演主要角色的幾條腦內神經傳導物質通道系統。也已經有人提議強化對於注意力不足過動症更全面的概觀以及更多可能與之相關的腦內神經傳導物質通道系統之探究。[140][144][145]

而研究也發現，注意力不足過動症是由一種發生於腦前額葉的遺傳性的多巴胺新陳代謝失常引致。更近期的研究認為正腎上腺素的新陳代謝亦會對病情有所影響 [146] [147] [148]。

截至2019年8月底，已知ADHD也與 血清素傳導系統（英语：serotonin pathways）（5hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]）、 乙酰胆碱傳導系統（英语：acetylcholine pathways）（ACH）、鴉片類傳導系統（英语：opioid pathways）、和谷氨酸傳導系統（英语：glutamate pathways）（GLU）的失調有關。[149][150][151]

治療

主条目：注意力不足過動症的治療

注意力不足過動症的治療方式包括心理治療、行為治療及藥物，也有可能是用幾種方式一起進行。治療對病症會有長期的改善，但是無法完全根除病症的影響[152]。藥物包括有興奮劑、阿托莫西汀、腎上腺素受體α2（英语：alpha-2 adrenergic receptor）拮抗劑，有時也會包括抗抑鬱藥物[56][153]。若時無法專注在長期獎勵上的人，有許多的正增强方式可以提昇其工作表現[154]。ADHD藥物中的興奮劑也可以提昇患者的毅力及工作表現[140][154]。

行為治療

有關行為治療在ADHD上的應用，有許多良好的實證，若是針對學齡前，或是症狀輕微的病患，一般會建議用行為治療為第一線的療法[155][156]。心理療法包括有心理教育、行為治療、认知行为疗法（CBT）、人際取向心理治療、家庭治療、學校介入、社交技巧訓練、行為方面的同儕介入、機構培訓[157]、父母管理訓練[90]。父母管理訓練可以改善包括反對行為以及不合常規行為在內的一些行為問題[158]。心理療法也包括神經反饋（英语：neurofeedback）訓練[159]，目前還不清楚是否有效[160]。

有關家庭治療的效果，目前還很少足夠品質的證據可以佐證。目前證據認為家庭治療的效果類似群體照顧（community care），效果比安慰劑要好[161]。有許多注意力不足過動症支持組織可以提供相關資訊，並且協助家庭適應ADHD的情形[162]。

有關社交技巧的訓練、行為調整以及藥物的對病患的好處可能有限。要減少後續心理及精神問題（例如重度抑郁症、犯罪、學校學習失敗、物質使用疾患）的主要因素是和沒有從事偏差行為的人建立友誼[163]。

規律的體能鍛煉，特別是有氧运动，對於患有ADHD的兒童及成人而言也是有效的附加療法（英语：adjunct therapy），特別是配合興奮劑藥物治療時更是如此，不過針對改善症狀，最理想的運動種類及強度還不清楚[164][165][166]。長期規律有氧運動對ADHD患者的好處是提昇行為及運動能力、提昇管控功能（包括專注、抑制控制、計劃等）、較快的資訊處理速度，記憶力也會比較好[164][165][166]。家長及教師針對ADHD兒童規律有氧运动對行為及以社交-情緒上的改善有：全身整體機能較佳、減少ADHD症狀、自尊感較好、減少焦慮及抑鬱的程度、較少身體症狀、課業成績及教室行為較佳，社交行為也有改善[164]。若在有使用興奮劑治療時進行運動，會增加興奮劑藥物對執行功能的影響[164]，一般認為運動的短期效果是因為運動時大腦突触多巴胺和去甲腎上腺素濃度的增加所造成[164]。

藥物

針對注意力不足過動症，可以用中樞神經刺激劑（也稱為兴奋剂）藥物進行治療[167][168][已过时]，對於症狀至少會有一些效果，短期而言，約有80%會有效果[36][169][168]。家長及教師反應哌甲酯比較可以改善其症狀[36][170]，中樞神經刺激劑也可以減少ADHD兒童意外事故的風險[171]。針對ADHD的中樞神經刺激劑藥物除了哌甲酯外，還有苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺等。

針對ADHD的非中樞神經刺激劑藥物有許多種，包括阿托莫西汀、安非他酮、胍法辛及可乐定，這些可以作為主要藥物治療，或是配合中樞神經刺激劑藥物一起使用[167][172]。目前有關各藥物之間的比較，還沒有說服力足夠的研究結果可以佐證，不過在副作用上似乎差不多[173]。中樞神經刺激劑藥物比較可以提昇課業表現，阿托莫西汀則無此效果[174]。阿托莫西汀比較不會有成癮問題，因此若有娛樂性藥物或是強迫性藥物使用風險的人，比較建議使用阿托莫西汀[23]。有關藥物對社交行為上的影響，目前的資料也還不充份[173]。截至2015年6月年 (2015年6月-Missing required parameter 1=month!)，還沒有完全確定ADHD藥物的長期影響[175][176]。核磁共振成像 研究推測長期用苯丙胺或哌甲酯治療，會減少因為ADHD造成的大腦功能及結構異常[177][178][179]。2018年的文獻回顧發現若考慮短期效果，哌甲酯對兒童最有效，苯丙胺對成人最有效[180]。

什麼情形要用胍法辛治療會依國家而不同，英國國家健康照護專業組織（英语：National Institute for Health and Care Excellence）（NICE）針對成人是第一線藥物，若針對兒童，只建議在病情嚴重時才使用，而大部份美國的醫學指南會建議可以針對各年齡層使用[28]。針對學齡前的兒童，一般不建議用藥物治療[90][181]。若治療用的中樞神經刺激劑劑量不足，可能會有沒有藥效的情形[182]，這尤其常出現在青少年及成人身上，因為核可的劑量是針對學齡兒童的，因此有些醫療人員會依體重或是依其他因素給藥[183][184][185]。

一般而言，在正常治療劑量的哌甲酯及中樞神經刺激劑是安全的，不過有其副作用以及禁忌症[167]。若哌甲酯給兒童及青少年使用，有研究發現這和一些嚴重或不嚴重的有害副作用有關，不過證據品質還不充份[186]。若針對兒童開立這類藥物，需仔細的監測兒童的情形[186]。若ADHD的中樞神經刺激劑嚴重過量，可能會和興奮性精神病（英语：stimulant psychosis）或是狂躁的症狀[187]。若是治療用的劑量，出現類似情形的機率非常低，只有0.1%，會在開始用中樞神經刺激劑藥物治療後的前幾週出現[187][188][189]，若也使用抗精神病药，可以有效緩解急性苯丙胺精神病的症狀[187]，若長期治療，需要定期的監測[190]。興奮劑的藥物治療需要定期停藥，評估是否還需要用藥、減少發育遲緩的情形，並且減低抗藥性[191][192]。若是長期使用超過ADHD治療劑量的興奮劑藥物濫用，一般會和成瘾及物質依賴有關[193][194]。不過未治療的ADHD，會提高物質濫用以及行為規範障礙的風險[193]。興奮劑藥物的使用，可能可以降低風險，但也有可能沒有此效果[23][175][193]。還不清楚懷孕時服用這些藥物是否安全[195]。

飲食

飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助[196]。一份2013年的統合分析針對有ADHD症狀，而且有補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現，只有不到三分之一的兒童在症狀上有改善[129]。這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助，也有可能是因為這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療[129]。這些文獻也指出目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法[129]。2014年發表的文獻也發現排除飲食在治療ADHD上的成效有限[132]。另一篇2016年文獻回顧指出，根據研究結果，「無麩質飲食在未來成為ADHD的標準療法」之機率是微乎其微[76]。

2017的文獻回顧指出有一些排除飲食的方式對於非常小，無法用藥的幼童，以及對藥物沒有反應的患者可能有用，不過不鼓勵用補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品作為ADHD的正規治療方式[197] 。長期鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的不足可能可以讓ADHD的症狀加劇[198]，也有少數證據指出組織內锌含量過低和ADHD有關[199]。不過除非證實有鋅不足（英语：zinc deficiency）的情形（目前多半是開發中國家才會有鋅不足的情形），一般不建議用鋅補充劑（英语：zinc supplementation）治療[200]。不過若鋅礦物質和苯丙胺類藥物同時使用的話，可以減低苯丙胺藥物的最小有效劑量，也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果[201]。另有證據指出Ω-3脂肪酸對於病情會有些許的改善，不過不建議取代醫學治療[202][203]。

流行病學

主条目：注意力不足過動症的流行病學
 
注意力不足過動症各子類型的比例分布（紫色為混合型；藍色為注意力缺陷為主型；粉紅色為過動—衝動為主型）[204][205]

注意力不足過動症是童年階段最常見的發育疾患[206]。根據2015年發表的研究，依照DSM-III, DSM-III-R及DSM-IV的標準，國際ADHD流行率中位數，兒童為6-8%[207][17]。若使用ICD-10的標準，同年齡兒童的流行率則為1–2% [18]。

美國的成人注意力不足過動症的流行率為4-5%[208][209]。根據《找回專注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》，成人ADHD在台灣的流行率推估為3-4%[96]:24-25。ADHD是全球性的[210][211][212][213]。世界各地ADHD流行率的差異主要是因為世界各地使用的ADHD診斷方法不同。[214] 若使用相同的診斷方法，則世界各地所得出的ADHD流行率將介於伯仲之間。[215]

在亞洲，台灣[216][217]、日本[218]、韓國[219]、越南[220]、中國大陸[221]、港澳[222][223]等地的未成年之ADHD流行率均介於6-8%之間。

英國和美國的ADHD診斷率和治療率自1970年代起逐年增加至今[224]。學界的共識認為這個現象是因為診斷方法的變遷[224]以及人們逐漸願意利用藥物來治療ADHD所致[18]，並非ADHD的流行率真的增加了。[214][225]

學界共識認為，2013年起，DSM的版本從DSM 4TR 推進到 DSM 5 會使得ADHD的診斷數增加（特別是成人注意力不足過動症的診斷數） [226]。

歷史

主條目：「注意力不足/過動症」的歷史由來（英语：History of ADHD）
 
關於ADHD治療、診斷標準及流行率的時間軸 （英文）

1798年時蘇格蘭醫師亞歷山大·克里奇頓（英语：Alexander Crichton）在其著作《對精神紊亂的性質和起源的探究》（An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement）中提到了精神不安[227][228]，1902年，英國兒科醫生George Still（英语：George Frederic Still）首次描述一項與注意力不足過動症近似的病徵[229][224]。

不同的時期，描述注意力不足過動症的名詞也有所不同：在1952年的DSM-I稱為微細腦功能失常，在1968年的DSM-II則稱為兒童活动亢进，在1980年的DSM-III稱為注意力不足症（可能伴隨過動，也可能沒有）英文為 attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity[224]，在1987年的DSM-III-R更名為注意力不足過動症，在1994年的DSM-IV將注意力不足過動症分為注意力散渙主導型（英语：Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive）、活動量過多型以及混合型[230]，在2013年的DSM-5仍延用此一分類[12]。其他的名詞有在1930年代使用的微細腦創傷[231]，但因為不少病童都沒有發覺有受過任何創傷，因此後來改名為微細腦功能失常。

1937年時，神經刺激劑開始用在注意力不足過動症的治療[232]。1934年時美國許可將安非他命用在注意力不足過動症治療，是美國第一個許可的苯丙胺類藥物[233]，1950年代開始使用哌甲酯（商品名稱為利他能），1970年代則開始使用对映异构的右旋苯丙胺[224]。

預後

孩童的ADHD有30–50%的機率持續到其成人時期，[234][235][236] 那些持續被ADHD影響的成人可能會在成長過程中發展出一些技巧彌補部分ADHD的症狀。[33] 帶有ADHD的兒童與青少年相較於不帶有ADHD的兒童與青少年，有較高的風險發生意外受傷等事故。[171]

ADHD藥物能改善（非治癒）患者在生活中許多方面的功能性損傷（functional impairment ；可理解為應對能力的損傷）和生活品質（英语：Quality of life (healthcare)）（例如：發生意外事故的風險）。但是ADHD患者的學習障礙和執行功能缺損（例如時間管理、生活秩序以及組織能力[237]）等症狀，即便在服用ADHD藥物後，這些症狀的改善程度極其有限或幾乎沒有效果。[238]

考科藍協作組織於2015年發表的系統性文獻回顧指出，雖然中樞神經刺激劑不會令服用者產生嚴重的副作用，但他們較常出現失眠、食慾不振等較為輕微、影響較輕的副作用，並衍生出長期預後的不確定因素，因此未來的研究重點將會聚焦於探討解決前述的副作用的方法。與此同時，未來亦需要深入地研究「非藥物治療方式」以及可能的「非藥物治療方式」之隨機對照試驗[239][240]。

迄今為止，對於ADHD的長期追蹤調查主要都是小規模的，代表性有限。唯一規模較大也較具有代表性的美國衛生及公共服務部MTA（多模式治療）研究發現，那些曾在1990年代參加MTA的兒童ADHD，六到八年後進入青春期，他們在許多方面的應對能力，取決於他們小時候治療前呈現的症狀、共病、疾病的嚴重度以及治療後對於MTA四種治療模式的任意一種模式的契合度高低等因素。[241]

當MTA追蹤這些受試者長達十六年，直到受試者的平均年齡到達25歲的時候，發現這些患者生活中各領域的應對能力取決於ADHD的症狀是否持續到成年、ADHD的症狀嚴重度、和共病等因素。[242][243][244]

社會與文化

 
美國電影電視演員伊丽莎·杜什库鼓勵大眾認識ADHD[245]

注意力不足過動症患者常被錯誤認為「只是懶惰或缺乏意志力」、「診斷只不過是用來為患者們的問題找藉口罷了」等。有ADHD患童因長期遭到霸凌，於獨處時結束生命。[246][247][248]台灣醫師的研究發現，在台灣，注意力不足過動症患者具有顯著較高的「因傷致死」機率，起因來自：自殺、意外和謀殺。[249]

一些家庭對過度活躍症認識不深，不了解、誤解為弱智、低能，大部份會選擇以暴易暴的方法解決問題。有些會選擇送去智能庇護所，因為專業人員不懂得審查過度活躍症與智障無關，患者會被送去孤兒院、保良局及兒童之家。

許多國家或地區都程度不等的在「精神醫療及心理衛生」方面遭遇資源不足以面對現實所需的情況。[250][251][252]以美國為例，美國精神醫療環境即便先進且持續進步中，然而注意力不足過動症患者接受行為治療的比例仍被當地學者專家認為仍然太低。 [252] 2017年美國政府撥出一億美金用於支持兒童與青少年常見精神疾病的研究：如何提供自閉症者更好的治療、其他兒童心理精神疾病（包括ADHD在內）的病理學及生理學等。[253]

治療方式的爭議

主条目：注意力不足過動症的爭議

自1970年代開始，注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及醫療在歐美就已經是有爭議性的議題。爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。世界衛生組織也認可治療ADHD兒童時，先進行非藥物治療再進行藥物治療的作法[254][255]，但各觀點對注意力不足過動症的認知差異很大。

有的觀點認為注意力不足過動症是正常行為的範圍內，也有的假定注意力不足過動症是一種遺傳疾病。其他有關注意力不足過動症的爭議包括對兒童用（合理劑量的）中樞神經刺激劑（俗稱興奮劑）藥物進行治療、診斷的方式，以及是否有過度診斷（英语：Overdiagnosis）的情形。有些宗教對治療方式也會有不同的認知，例如公民人權委員會（山達基在1969年成立的反精神醫學團體）曾在1980年代提出反對使用利他能的運動，目前該組織的立場仍是不主張用中樞神經刺激劑處方治療ADHD[256]。

中國大陸、香港

目前注意力不足過動症的治療策略（涵蓋藥物及非藥物治療）已成為中國大陸的相關醫學指南 [257]，中國大陸的多动症关爱协会指出：「中國大陸对『注意力缺陷多动障碍』的诊断、治疗尚不规范，家长的认知亦不够全面，导致社会上仍有很多不科学的治疗方式和训练方法在被家长们使用。」

香港特別行政區則遇到特教需求的識別及輪流服務的等候時間過長、資源及服務不足、教師人手不足及培訓有待改善、醫校社合作不順暢以及政府未有整體支援特教學生的政策藍圖及願景的問題。目前正在推動特殊教育進行立法，以全面保障特殊教育需要學生的權利。[251]另外，香港的一項問卷調查發現，有特殊教育需要的學生受欺凌的比率極高，在小學環境下有33%遭受欺凌，在中學環境下有47%。而於國際學生能力評估計劃的調查亦顯示，香港中學生遭到欺凌的比率為32.3%。即使家長們想尋求協助亦因資源問題，大部分服務需要自費，而基層家長較為難以負擔。另外，亦有社工指出服務缺乏系統整理，而大部分學校都缺乏動機正面處理事件[258]。

備註

  1. ^ 台灣兒童與青少年精神科醫師高淑芬在其著作《找回專注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手冊》提到，雖然「過動-衝動型」和「混合型」的ADHD從小就非常好動，坐不住，老是跑跑跳跳、追逐打鬧，精力無窮，但其實這類孩子的運動協調性可能不太好，運動協調性較弱的表象為：肢體動作較大、動作較粗魯。[96]

参考文献

參考資料

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. 2016-03 [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-07-23）. 
  2. ^ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Symptoms and Diagnosis. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014-09-29 [2014-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Dulcan MK, Lake M. Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 4th illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2011: 34. ISBN 978-1-58562-416-4 –通过Google Books. 
  5. ^ Ferri, Fred F. Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. 2010: Chapter A. ISBN 0323076998. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 CDC. ADHD Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-31 [2018-07-15]. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. Deciding if a child has ADHD is a several-step process. This page gives you an overview of how ADHD is diagnosed. There is no single test to diagnose ADHD, and many other problems, like sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, can have similar symptoms. 
  7. ^ Coghill DR, Banaschewski T, Soutullo C, Cottingham MG, Zuddas A. Systematic review of quality of life and functional outcomes in randomized placebo-controlled studies of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017-11, 26 (11): 1283–1307. ISSN 1018-8827. PMC 5656703  . PMID 28429134. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-0986-y. 
  8. ^ Jain R, Katic A. Current and Investigational Medication Delivery Systems for Treating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2016-08, 18 (4). PMID 27828696. doi:10.4088/PCC.16r01979. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.. Lancet. 2016-10-08, 388 (10053): 1545–1602. PMC 5055577  . PMID 27733282. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. 
  10. ^ Sroubek A, Kelly M, Li X. Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience Bulletin. 2013-02, 29 (1): 103–10. PMC 4440572  . PMID 23299717. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Caroline SC (编). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2010: 133 [2017-11-02]. ISBN 9780387717982. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  12. ^ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 0890425558. 
  13. ^ Erskine HE, Norman RE, Ferrari AJ, Chan GC, Copeland WE, Whiteford HA, Scott JG. Long-Term Outcomes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-10, 55 (10): 841–50. PMID 27663939. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016. 
  14. ^ Kooij, J.J.S.; Bijlenga, D. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry. 2019-02, 56: 14–34. PMID 30453134. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001. 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Walitza S, Drechsler R, Ball J. [The school child with ADHD] [The school child with ADHD]. Therapeutische Umschau. Revue Therapeutique. 2012-08, 69 (8): 467–73. PMID 22851461. doi:10.1024/0040-5930/a000316 （德语）. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 NIMH. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Easy-to-Read). National Institute of Mental Health. 2013 [2016-04-17]. （原始内容存档于2016-04-14）. 
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 Willcutt EG. The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012-07, 9 (3): 490–9. PMC 3441936  . PMID 22976615. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Cowen, Philip; Harrison, Paul; Burns, Tom. Drugs and other physical treatments. Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry 6th. Oxford University Press. 2012: 546. ISBN 978-0-19-960561-3. 
  19. ^ Faraone SV. Ch. 25: Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Tsuang MT, Tohen M, Jones P (编). Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology 3rd. John Wiley & Sons. 2011: 450 [2018-09-16]. ISBN 9780470977408. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  20. ^ Crawford, Nicole. ADHD: a women's issue. Monitor on Psychology. 2003-02, 34 (2): 28 [2019-11-21]. （原始内容存档于2017-04-09）. 
  21. ^ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H. [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)] [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. L'Encephale. 2009-04, 35 (2): 107–14. PMID 19393378. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005 （法语）. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Singh I. Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2008-12, 9 (12): 957–64. PMID 19020513. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 Kooij SJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugué M, Carpentier PJ, et al. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry. 2010-09, 10: 67. PMC 2942810  . PMID 20815868. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67. 
  24. ^ Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, Simon V, Bitter I. [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review] [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review]. Psychiatria Hungarica. 2008, 23 (5): 324–35. PMID 19129549 （匈牙利语）. 
  25. ^ Ginsberg Y, Quintero J, Anand E, Casillas M, Upadhyaya HP. Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2014, 16 (3). PMC 4195639  . PMID 25317367. doi:10.4088/PCC.13r01600. Reports indicate that ADHD affects 2.5%–5% of adults in the general population,5–8 compared with 5%–7% of children.9,10 ... However, fewer than 20% of adults with ADHD are currently diagnosed and/or treated by psychiatrists.7,15,16 
  26. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : diagnosis and management of ADHD in children, young people, and adults. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (Great Britain), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain), British Psychological Society., Royal College of Psychiatrists. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 17. ISBN 9781854334718. OCLC 244314955. PMID 22420012. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Pharmacological Treatment. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 303–307 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. [2011-02-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-21）. 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recommendations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015-06-24 [2015-07-13]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-07）. 
  30. ^ NIMH » The Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA):Questions and Answers. NIMH » Home. [2019-01-01]. （原始内容存档于2021-01-30）. Why were the MTA medication treatments more effective than community treatments that also usually included medication? Answer: There were substantial differences in quality and intensity between the study-provided medication treatments and those provided in the community care group. 
  31. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH. Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge. CNS Drugs. 2011-07, 25 (7): 539–54. PMID 21699268. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. 
  32. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, et al. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLOS One. 2015-02, 10 (2): e0116407. PMC 4340791  . PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. 
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Gentile JP, Atiq R, Gillig PM. likelihood that the adult with ADHD has developed coping mechanisms to compensate for his or her impairment. Psychiatry. 2006-08, 3 (8): 25–30 [2019-01-02]. PMC 2957278  . PMID 20963192. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  34. ^ Lange KW, Reichl S, Lange KM, Tucha L, Tucha O. The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2010-12, 2 (4): 241–55. PMC 3000907  . PMID 21258430. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0045-8. 
  35. ^ Parrillo VN. Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. 2008: 63 [2009-05-02]. ISBN 9781412941655. 
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J. ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children. Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 2008, 16 (3): 151–66. PMID 18569037. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. 
  37. ^ Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E. When the child with ADHD grows up (PDF). Australian Family Physician. 2004-08, 33 (8): 615–8 [2019-01-01]. PMID 15373378. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-09-24）. 
  38. ^ Silver LB. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 3rd. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004: 4–7. ISBN 978-1-58562-131-6. 
  39. ^ Schonwald A, Lechner E. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2006-04, 18 (2): 189–95. PMID 16601502. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. 
  40. ^ Weiss LG. WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation scientist-practitioner perspectives 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. 2005: 237 [2019-01-01]. ISBN 978-0-12-564931-5. （原始内容存档于2021-01-16）. 
  41. ^ ADHD: The Diagnostic Criteria. PBS. Frontline. [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-04-20）. 
  42. ^ 陳錦宏. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會理事長陳錦宏醫師 敬上. Tc-adhd.com. 2015-04-18 [2016-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-24） （中文（臺灣））. 理事長的話：在這場演講，協會提出第一個主張，我們主張將ADHD原本「過動兒」的中文稱呼改為「心動兒」，因為ADHD包含沒有過動症狀的不專心兒童，「過動兒」常令人混淆，另外過動兒文字本身即包含負面意涵，而心動兒無此字義上的問題。 
  43. ^ 陳錦宏. 過動兒現象如何避免被以偏概全. 康健雜誌. 2017-01-25 [2018-04-14]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-24） （中文）. 
  44. ^ ADHD: Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). 2017-08-31. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. 
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 Dobie C. Diagnosis and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary care for school-age children and adolescents: 79. 2012 [2012-10-10]. （原始内容存档于2013-03-01）. 
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 CDC, Facts About ADHD, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-01-06 [2016-03-20], （原始内容存档于2016-03-22） 
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Ramsay JR. Cognitive behavioral therapy for adult ADHD. Routledge. 2007: 4, 25–26. ISBN 978-0-415-95501-0. 
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 National Institute of Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). National Institutes of Health. 2008 [2019-12-03]. （原始内容存档于2013-01-19）. 
  49. ^ Gershon J. A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2002-01, 5 (3): 143–54. PMID 11911007. doi:10.1177/108705470200500302. 
  50. ^ Coleman WL. Social competence and friendship formation in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Adolescent Medicine. 2008-08, 19 (2): 278–99, x. PMID 18822833. 
  51. ^ ADHD Anger Management Directory. Webmd.com. [2014-01-17]. （原始内容存档于2013-11-05）. 
  52. ^ Racine MB, Majnemer A, Shevell M, Snider L. Handwriting performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2008-04, 23 (4): 399–406. PMID 18401033. doi:10.1177/0883073807309244. 
  53. ^ F90 Hyperkinetic disorders, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision, World Health Organisation, 2010 [2014-11-02], （原始内容存档于2014-11-02） 
  54. ^ Bellani M, Moretti A, Perlini C, Brambilla P. Language disturbances in ADHD. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 2011-12, 20 (4): 311–5. PMID 22201208. doi:10.1017/S2045796011000527. 
  55. ^ 55.0 55.1 55.2 ADHD Symptoms. nhs.uk. 2017-10-20 [2018-05-15]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-01）. 
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Wilens TE, Spencer TJ. Understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood. Postgraduate Medicine. 2010-09, 122 (5): 97–109. PMC 3724232  . PMID 20861593. doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206. 
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 Bailey, Eileen. ADHD and Learning Disabilities: How can you help your child cope with ADHD and subsequent Learning Difficulties? There is a way.. Remedy Health Media, LLC. [2013-11-15]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-03）. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Krull, KR. Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children . Uptodate. Wolters Kluwer Health. 2007-12-05 [2008-09-12]. （原始内容存档于2009-06-05）. 
  59. ^ 59.0 59.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 18–26, 38 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  60. ^ Wilens TE, Morrison NR. The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2011-07, 24 (4): 280–5. PMC 3435098  . PMID 21483267. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328345c956. 
  61. ^ Corkum P, Davidson F, Macpherson M. A framework for the assessment and treatment of sleep problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2011-06, 58 (3): 667–83. PMID 21600348. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.004. 
  62. ^ Tsai MH, Huang YS. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep disorders in children. The Medical Clinics of North America. 2010-05, 94 (3): 615–32. PMID 20451036. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.008. 
  63. ^ Brown TE. ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2008-10, 10 (5): 407–11. PMID 18803914. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. 
  64. ^ Bendz LM, Scates AC. Melatonin treatment for insomnia in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2010-01, 44 (1): 185–91. PMID 20028959. doi:10.1345/aph.1M365. 
  65. ^ McBurnett K, Pfiffner LJ. Treatment of aggressive ADHD in children and adolescents: conceptualization and treatment of comorbid behavior disorders. Postgraduate Medicine. 2009-11, 121 (6): 158–65. PMID 19940426. doi:10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2084. 
  66. ^ Hofvander B, Ossowski D, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H. Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition (PDF). International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2009, 32 (4): 224–34 [2019-12-03]. PMID 19428109. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-11-28）. 
  67. ^ Rubia K. "Cool" inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus "hot" ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review. Biological Psychiatry. 2011-06, 69 (12): e69–87. PMID 21094938. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.023. 
  68. ^ Weinberg WA, Brumback RA. Primary disorder of vigilance: a novel explanation of inattentiveness, daydreaming, boredom, restlessness, and sleepiness. The Journal of Pediatrics. 1990-05, 116 (5): 720–5. PMID 2329420. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(05)82654-x. 
  69. ^ Barkley RA. Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2014-01, 42 (1): 117–25 [2018-03-12]. PMID 24234590. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-08-09）. 
  70. ^ Baud P, Perroud N, Aubry JM. [Bipolar disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: differential diagnosis or comorbidity]. Revue Medicale Suisse. 2011-06, 7 (297): 1219–22. PMID 21717696 （法语）. 
  71. ^ Merino-Andreu M. [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children] [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children]. Revista de Neurologia. 2011-03,. 52 Suppl 1: S85–95. PMID 21365608 （西班牙语）. 
  72. ^ Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL. Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment. Sleep Medicine. 2010-08, 11 (7): 643–51. PMID 20620105. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014. 
  73. ^ Karroum E, Konofal E, Arnulf I. [Restless-legs syndrome]. Revue Neurologique. 2008, 164 (8–9): 701–21. PMID 18656214. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2008.06.006 （法语）. 
  74. ^ Shreeram S, He JP, Kalaydjian A, Brothers S, Merikangas KR. Prevalence of enuresis and its association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among U.S. children: results from a nationally representative study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009-01, 48 (1): 35–41. PMC 2794242  . PMID 19096296. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318190045c. 
  75. ^ Instanes JT, Klungsøyr K, Halmøy A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Adult ADHD and Comorbid Somatic Disease: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Attention Disorders (Systematic Review). 2018-02, 22 (3): 203–228 [2021-02-06]. PMC 5987989  . PMID 27664125. doi:10.1177/1087054716669589. （原始内容存档于2017-02-07）.  
  76. ^ 76.0 76.1 Ertürk E, Wouters S, Imeraj L, Lampo A. Association of ADHD and Celiac Disease: What Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of the Literature. Journal of Attention Disorders (Review). 2016-01: 108705471561149. PMID 26825336. doi:10.1177/1087054715611493. Up till now, there is no conclusive evidence for a relationship between ADHD and CD. Therefore, it is not advised to perform routine screening of CD when assessing ADHD (and vice versa) or to implement GFD as a standard treatment in ADHD. Nevertheless, the possibility of untreated CD predisposing to ADHD-like behavior should be kept in mind. ... It is possible that in untreated patients with CD, neurologic symptoms such as chronic fatigue, inattention, pain, and headache could predispose patients to ADHD-like behavior (mainly symptoms of inattentive type), which may be alleviated after GFD treatment. (CD: celiac disease; GFD: gluten-free diet) 
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 Frazier TW, Demaree HA, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology. 2004-07, 18 (3): 543–55. PMID 15291732. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.543. 
  78. ^ Bridgett DJ, Walker ME. Intellectual functioning in adults with ADHD: a meta-analytic examination of full scale IQ differences between adults with and without ADHD. Psychological Assessment. 2006-03, 18 (1): 1–14. PMID 16594807. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.1.1. 
  79. ^ Faraone, Stephen V.; Ghirardi, Laura; Kuja-Halkola, Ralf; Lichtenstein, Paul; Larsson, Henrik. The Familial Co-Aggregation of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Intellectual Disability: A Register-Based Family Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.11.011. 
  80. ^ Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  81. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Diagnosis. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 116–7, 119 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  82. ^ MerckMedicus Modules: ADHD –Pathophysiology. 2002-08 [2018-07-18]. （原始内容存档于2010-05-01）. 
  83. ^ Sand T, Breivik N, Herigstad A. [Assessment of ADHD with EEG]. Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening. 2013-02, 133 (3): 312–6. PMID 23381169. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.12.0224 （挪威语）. 
  84. ^ Millichap JG, Millichap JJ, Stack CV. Utility of the electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. 2011-07, 42 (3): 180–4. PMID 21870470. doi:10.1177/155005941104200307. 
  85. ^ 85.0 85.1 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition: DSM-IV-TR®. American Psychiatric Association. 2000 [2017-02-17]. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. （原始内容存档于2020-09-23）. 
  86. ^ Hyperactivity: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. 2018-07-09 [2018-07-15]. （原始内容存档于2017-07-15）. Hyperactivity is often considered more of a problem for schools and parents than it is for the child. But many hyperactive children are unhappy, or even depressed. Hyperactive behavior may make a child a target for bullying, or make it harder to connect with other children. Schoolwork may be more difficult. Kids who are hyperactive are frequently punished for their behavior. Excessive movement (hyperkinetic behavior) often decreases as the child grows older. It may disappear entirely by adolescence. 
  87. ^ 87.0 87.1 引用错误：没有为名为NIMH_ADHD_basic的参考文献提供内容
  88. ^ 陳錦宏. 心動家族:注意力不足過動症ＡＤＨＤ的第三條路. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會. Tc-adhd.com. 2016-12-13 [2017-02]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-24） （中文（臺灣））. 
  89. ^ Wiener JM, Dulcan MK. Textbook Of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004 [2014-11-02]. ISBN 978-1-58562-057-9. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  90. ^ 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3 90.4 90.5 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  91. ^ Wolraich M, Brown L, Brown RT, DuPaul G, Earls M, Feldman HM, Ganiats TG, Kaplanek B, Meyer B, Perrin J, Pierce K, Reiff M, Stein MT, Visser S. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011-11, 128 (5): 1007–22. PMC 4500647  . PMID 22003063. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2654. 
  92. ^ Smith BJ, Barkley RA, Shapiro CJ. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Mash EJ, Barkley RA (编). Assessment of Childhood Disorders 4th. New York, NY: Guilford Press. 2007: 53–131. ISBN 978-1-59385-493-5. 
  93. ^ Maturation of the brain, as reflected in the age at which a cortex area attains peak thickness, in ADHD (above) and normal development (below). Lighter areas are thinner, darker areas thicker. Light blue in the ADHD sequence corresponds to the same thickness as light purple in the normal development sequence. The darkest areas in the lower part of the brain, which are not associated with ADHD, had either already peaked in thickness by the start of the study, or, for statistical reasons, were not amenable to defining an age of peak cortex thickness. Movie of same data below. Source: NIMH Child Psychiatry Branch
  94. ^ Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, But Follows Normal Pattern. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2015-10-06 [2018-12-29]. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  95. ^ Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. ScienceDirect: 42–58. 2015-01-01 [2018-09-19]. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398270-4.00004-5. （原始内容存档于2021-02-09）. Despite being the most studied disorder in child psychiatry, the pathophysiology of ADHD remains elusive. 
  96. ^ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 96.4 高淑芬. 找回專注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2016-05-09 [2016-12-12]. ISBN 9789863570592 （中文（臺灣））. 
  97. ^ 97.0 97.1 97.2 高淑芬. 家有過動兒：幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2013-08-28. ISBN 9789866112805. 
  98. ^ 98.0 98.1 Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 2: Causative Factors. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. New York, NY: Springer Science. 2010: 26 [2021-02-06]. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  99. ^ Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K. What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013-01, 54 (1): 3–16. PMC 3572580  . PMID 22963644. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x. 
  100. ^ CDC, Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-03-16 [2016-04-17], （原始内容存档于2016-04-14） 
  101. ^ Mental health of children and adolescents (PDF). 2005-01-15 [2011-10-13]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-10-24）. 
  102. ^ Psychiatric GWAS Consortium: ADHD Subgroup, Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S, Asherson P, Franke B, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010-09, 49 (9): 884–97. PMC 2928252  . PMID 20732625. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008. 
  103. ^ Burt SA. Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin. 2009-07, 135 (4): 608–37. PMID 19586164. doi:10.1037/a0015702. 
  104. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema S. Abnormal Psychology Sixth. 2013: 267. ISBN 978-0-07-803538-8. 
  105. ^ Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, et al. The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review. Molecular Psychiatry. 2012-10, 17 (10): 960–87. PMC 3449233  . PMID 22105624. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138. 
  106. ^ 106.0 106.1 Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID. Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Human Genetics. 2009-07, 126 (1): 51–90. PMID 19506906. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x. 
  107. ^ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Kebir O, Tabbane K, Sengupta S, Joober R. Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2009-03, 34 (2): 88–101. PMC 2647566  . PMID 19270759. 
  108. ^ Berry MD. The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases. Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials. 2007-01, 2 (1): 3–19 [2021-02-06]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.329.563  . PMID 18473983. doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. （原始内容存档于2017-02-01）. Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1. 
  109. ^ Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR. Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets. Molecular Pharmacology. 2009-08, 76 (2): 229–35. PMC 2713119  . PMID 19389919. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. 
  110. ^ Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M. Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2010-11, 2 (3): 139–47. PMC 3280610  . PMID 21432600. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2. 
  111. ^ Nikolaidis A, Gray JR. ADHD and the DRD4 exon III 7-repeat polymorphism: an international meta-analysis. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2010-06, 5 (2–3): 188–93. PMC 2894686  . PMID 20019071. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp049. 
  112. ^ 112.0 112.1 112.2 Glover V. Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2011-04, 52 (4): 356–67. PMID 21250994. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x. 
  113. ^ 113.0 113.1 113.2 Williams J, Taylor E. The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 2006-06, 3 (8): 399–413. PMC 1578754  . PMID 16849269. doi:10.1098/rsif.2005.0102. 
  114. ^ 114.0 114.1 Cardo E, Nevot A, Redondo M, Melero A, de Azua B, García-De la Banda G, Servera M. [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?] [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?]. Revista de Neurologia. 2010-03,. 50 Suppl 3: S143–7. PMID 20200842 （西班牙语）. 
  115. ^ Adriani W, Zoratto F, Laviola G. Brain Processes in Discounting: Consequences of Adolescent Methylphenidate Exposure. Stanford C, Tannock R (编). Behavioral neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its treatment. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Volume 9. New York: Springer. 2012-01-13: 132–134 [2019-12-03]. ISBN 978-3-642-24611-1. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  116. ^ Ekstein S, Glick B, Weill M, Kay B, Berger I. Down syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2011-10, 26 (10): 1290–5 [2021-02-06]. PMID 21628698. doi:10.1177/0883073811405201. （原始内容存档于2015-11-20）. 
  117. ^ CDC, Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-03-16 [2016-04-17], （原始内容存档于2016-04-14） 
  118. ^ Burger PH, Goecke TW, Fasching PA, Moll G, Heinrich H, Beckmann MW, Kornhuber J. [How does maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy affect the development of attention deficit/hyperactivity syndrome in the child]. Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie (Review). 2011-09, 79 (9): 500–6. PMID 21739408. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1273360 （德语）. 
  119. ^ Eubig PA, Aguiar A, Schantz SL. Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Environmental Health Perspectives (Review. Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.). 2010-12, 118 (12): 1654–67. PMC 3002184  . PMID 20829149. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901852. 
  120. ^ de Cock M, Maas YG, van de Bor M. Does perinatal exposure to endocrine disruptors induce autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders? Review. Acta Paediatrica (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). 2012-08, 101 (8): 811–8. PMID 22458970. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02693.x. 
  121. ^ Abbott LC, Winzer-Serhan UH. Smoking during pregnancy: lessons learned from epidemiological studies and experimental studies using animal models. Critical Reviews in Toxicology (Review). 2012-04, 42 (4): 279–303. PMID 22394313. doi:10.3109/10408444.2012.658506. 
  122. ^ Thapar A, Cooper M, Jefferies R, Stergiakouli E. What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?. Archives of Disease in Childhood (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). 2012-03, 97 (3): 260–5. PMC 3927422  . PMID 21903599. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-300482. 
  123. ^ Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics (Review). 2008-02, 121 (2): e358–65. PMID 18245408. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1332. 
  124. ^ Ystrom E, Gustavson K, Brandlistuen RE, Knudsen GP, Magnus P, Susser E, Davey Smith G, Stoltenberg C, Surén P, Håberg SE, Hornig M, Lipkin WI, Nordeng H, Reichborn-Kjennerud T. Prenatal Exposure to Acetaminophen and Risk of ADHD. Pediatrics. 2017-11, 140 (5): e20163840. PMC 5654387  . PMID 29084830. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3840. hdl:11250/2465905. 
  125. ^ Wolraich ML. An Association Between Prenatal Acetaminophen Use and ADHD: The Benefits of Large Data Sets. Pediatrics. 2017-11, 140 (5): e20172703. PMID 29084834. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-2703. 
  126. ^ Eme R. ADHD: an integration with pediatric traumatic brain injury. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics (Review). 2012-04, 12 (4): 475–83. PMID 22449218. doi:10.1586/ern.12.15. 
  127. ^ 127.0 127.1 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  128. ^ 128.0 128.1 Millichap JG, Yee MM. The diet factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2012-02, 129 (2): 330–7 [2019-12-03]. PMID 22232312. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2199. （原始内容存档于2015-09-11）. 
  129. ^ 129.0 129.1 129.2 129.3 Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M, Stevenson J, Danckaerts M, van der Oord S, Döpfner M, Dittmann RW, Simonoff E, Zuddas A, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Coghill D, Hollis C, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Wong IC, Sergeant J. Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2013-03, 170 (3): 275–89. PMID 23360949. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12070991. Free fatty acid supplementation and artificial food color exclusions appear to have beneficial effects on ADHD symptoms, although the effect of the former are small and those of the latter may be limited to ADHD patients with food sensitivities... 
  130. ^ Tomaska LD, Brooke-Taylor S. Food Additives – General. Motarjemi Y, Moy GG, Todd EC (编). Encyclopedia of Food Safety 3 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press: 449. 2014. ISBN 978-0-12-378613-5. OCLC 865335120. 
  131. ^ FDA, Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee: Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children (PDF), U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2011-03 [2019-12-03], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-11-06） 
  132. ^ 132.0 132.1 Nigg JT, Holton K. Restriction and elimination diets in ADHD treatment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Review). 2014-10, 23 (4): 937–53. PMC 4322780  . PMID 25220094. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010. an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response. 
  133. ^ Mental health of children and adolescents (PDF). 2005-01-15 [2011-10-13]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-10-24）. 
  134. ^ Parens E, Johnston J. Facts, values, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2009-01, 3 (1): 1. PMC 2637252  . PMID 19152690. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-1. 
  135. ^ Szasz T. Psychiatric Medicine: Disorder. Pharmacracy: medicine and politics in America. Westport, CT: Praeger. 2001: 101. ISBN 978-0-275-97196-0 –通过Google Books. Mental diseases are invented and then given a name, for example attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 
  136. ^ Holland, Josephine; Sayal, Kapil. Relative age and ADHD symptoms, diagnosis and medication: a systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2018-10-06 [2019-12-03]. ISSN 1435-165X. PMID 30293121. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1229-6. （原始内容存档于2020-05-13）. 
  137. ^ Parritz R. Disorders of Childhood: Development and Psychopathology. Cengage Learning. 2013: 151. ISBN 978-1-285-09606-3. 
  138. ^ 138.0 138.1 [110] Stimulants for ADHD in children: Revisited | Therapeutics Initiative. 2018-05-28 [2018-07-06]. （原始内容存档于2021-01-30）. 
  139. ^ Stockman JA. Year Book of Pediatrics 2014 E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2016: 163 [2019-12-03]. ISBN 9780323265270. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22） （英语）. 
  140. ^ 140.0 140.1 140.2 140.3 140.4 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapters 10 and 13. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention. 
  141. ^ Krain AL, Castellanos FX. Brain development and ADHD. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006-08, 26 (4): 433–444. PMID 16480802. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005. 
  142. ^ 142.0 142.1 142.2 Chandler DJ, Waterhouse BD, Gao WJ. New perspectives on catecholaminergic regulation of executive circuits: evidence for independent modulation of prefrontal functions by midbrain dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons. Front. Neural Circuits. 2014-05, 8: 53. PMC 4033238  . PMID 24904299. doi:10.3389/fncir.2014.00053. 
  143. ^ 143.0 143.1 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 148, 154–157. ISBN 9780071481274. 
    NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
  144. ^ Castellanos FX, Proal E. Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal-striatal model. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.). 2012-01, 16 (1): 17–26. PMC 3272832  . PMID 22169776. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.007. Recent conceptualizations of ADHD have taken seriously the distributed nature of neuronal processing [10,11,35,36]. Most of the candidate networks have focused on prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar circuits, although other posterior regions are also being proposed [10]. 
  145. ^ Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C, Proal E, Di Martino A, Milham MP, Castellanos FX. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2012-10, 169 (10): 1038–1055. PMC 3879048  . PMID 22983386. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521. 
  146. ^ Dresel, S; Krause, J; Krause, KH; LaFougere, C; Brinkbäumer, K; Kung, HF; Hahn, K; Tatsch, K. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate treatment.. European journal of nuclear medicine. 2000, 27 (10): 1518–24. ISSN 0340-6997. PMID 11083541. 
  147. ^ Krause, KH; Dresel, SH; Krause, J; la Fougere, C; Ackenheil, M. The dopamine transporter and neuroimaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews. 2003, 27 (7): 605–13. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 14624805. 
  148. ^ Bymaster, F. Atomoxetine Increases Extracellular Levels of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in Prefrontal Cortex of Rat A Potential Mechanism for Efficacy in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology (Springer Nature). 2002, 27 (5): 699–711 [2017-02-17]. doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(02)00346-9. The selective norepinephrine (NE) transporter inhibitor atomoxetine (formerly called tomoxetine or LY139603) has been shown to alleviate symptoms in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). 
  149. ^ Faraone, Stephen V. The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews (Elsevier BV). 2018, 87: 255–270. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 29428394. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001. Although a substantial amount of research has focused on dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), ADHD has also been linked to dysfunction in serotonin (5hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]), acetylcholine (ACH), opioid, and glutamate (GLU) pathways (Cortese, 2012; Maltezos et al., 2014; Blum et al., 2008; Potter et al., 2014; Elia et al., 2011). The alterations in these neurotransmitter systems affect the function of brain structures that moderate executive function, working memory, emotional regulation, and reward processing (Fig. 1) (Faraone et al., 2015). 
  150. ^ Cortese S. The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): what every clinician should know. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2012-09, 16 (5): 422–33. PMID 22306277. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.01.009. 
  151. ^ Lesch KP, Merker S, Reif A, Novak M. Dances with black widow spiders: dysregulation of glutamate signalling enters centre stage in ADHD. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013-06, 23 (6): 479–91. PMID 22939004. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.013. 
  152. ^ Shaw M, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Young S, Kahle J, Woods AG, Arnold LE. A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine. 2012-09, 10: 99. PMC 3520745  . PMID 22947230. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-99. 
  153. ^ Bidwell LC, McClernon FJ, Kollins SH. Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 2011-08, 99 (2): 262–74. PMC 3353150  . PMID 21596055. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.05.002. 
  154. ^ 154.0 154.1 Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V, Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underestimated in patients with ADHD? A review of the literature. Postgraduate Medicine. 2013-07, 125 (4): 47–52. PMID 23933893. doi:10.3810/pgm.2013.07.2677. Behavioral studies show altered processing of reinforcement and incentives in children with ADHD. These children respond more impulsively to rewards and choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed incentives. Interestingly, a high intensity of reinforcement is effective in improving task performance in children with ADHD. Pharmacotherapy may also improve task persistence in these children. ... Previous studies suggest that a clinical approach using interventions to improve motivational processes in patients with ADHD may improve outcomes as children with ADHD transition into adolescence and adulthood. 
  155. ^ Fabiano GA, Pelham WE, Coles EK, Gnagy EM, Chronis-Tuscano A, O'Connor BC. A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review. 2009-03, 29 (2): 129–40. PMID 19131150. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. 
  156. ^ Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Barker A, Corr L, Wheeler A, Madaan V. Review of pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder for the general psychiatrist. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2009-03, 32 (1): 39–56. PMID 19248915. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.001. 
  157. ^ Evans SW, Owens JS, Bunford N. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 2014, 43 (4): 527–51. PMC 4025987  . PMID 24245813. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850700. 
  158. ^ Daley D, Van Der Oord S, Ferrin M, Cortese S, Danckaerts M, Doepfner M, Van den Hoofdakker BJ, Coghill D, Thompson M, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Buitelaar J, Dittmann RW, Hollis C, Holtmann M, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Rothenberger A, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Soutullo C, Steinhausen HC, Stringaris A, Taylor E, Wong IC, Zuddas A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Practitioner Review: Current best practice in the use of parent training and other behavioural interventions in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2017-10, 59 (9): 932–947 [2019-11-21]. PMID 29083042. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12825. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2019-04-04）. 
  159. ^ Arns M, de Ridder S, Strehl U, Breteler M, Coenen A. Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. 2009-07, 40 (3): 180–9. PMID 19715181. doi:10.1177/155005940904000311. 
  160. ^ Cortese S, Ferrin M, Brandeis D, Holtmann M, Aggensteiner P, Daley D, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Stevenson J, Stringaris A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Meta-Analysis of Clinical and Neuropsychological Outcomes From Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-06, 55 (6): 444–55. PMID 27238063. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.03.007. hdl:1854/LU-8123796. 
  161. ^ Bjornstad G, Montgomery P. Bjornstad GJ , 编. Family therapy for attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005-04, (2): CD005042. PMID 15846741. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005042.pub2. 
  162. ^ Turkington, Carol; Harris, Joseph. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Encyclopedia of the Brain and Brain Disorders. Infobase Publishing: 47. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4381-2703-3 –通过Google Books. 
  163. ^ Mikami AY. The importance of friendship for youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2010-06, 13 (2): 181–98. PMC 2921569  . PMID 20490677. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0067-y. 
  164. ^ 164.0 164.1 164.2 164.3 164.4 Den Heijer AE, Groen Y, Tucha L, Fuermaier AB, Koerts J, Lange KW, Thome J, Tucha O. Sweat it out? The effects of physical exercise on cognition and behavior in children and adults with ADHD: a systematic literature review. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2017-02, 124 (Suppl 1): 3–26. PMC 5281644  . PMID 27400928. doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1593-7. Beneficial chronic effects of cardio exercise were found on various functions as well, including executive functions, attention and behavior. 
  165. ^ 165.0 165.1 Kamp CF, Sperlich B, Holmberg HC. Exercise reduces the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and improves social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters. Acta Paediatrica. 2014-07, 103 (7): 709–14. PMID 24612421. doi:10.1111/apa.12628. We may conclude that all different types of exercise ... attenuate the characteristic symptoms of ADHD and improve social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters without any undesirable side effects. Available reports do not reveal which type, intensity, duration and frequency of exercise is most effective 
  166. ^ 166.0 166.1 Rommel AS, Halperin JM, Mill J, Asherson P, Kuntsi J. Protection from genetic diathesis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: possible complementary roles of exercise. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013-09, 52 (9): 900–10. PMC 4257065  . PMID 23972692. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.018. The findings from these studies provide some support for the notion that exercise has the potential to act as a protective factor for ADHD. 
  167. ^ 167.0 167.1 167.2 Wigal SB. Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults. CNS Drugs. 2009,. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. PMID 19621975. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. 
  168. ^ 168.0 168.1 Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M. Castells X , 编. Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011-06, (6): CD007813. PMID 21678370. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub2. 
  169. ^ Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V. The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 2013-09, 6: 87–99. PMC 3785407  . PMID 24082796. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S49114. Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions, and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months. However, the effect size may decrease beyond this period. ... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases compared with placebo controls, in the short term.22 
  170. ^ Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, Nilausen TD, Skoog M, Holmskov M, et al. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015-11, 11 (11): CD009885. PMID 26599576. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2. 
  171. ^ 171.0 171.1 Ruiz-Goikoetxea M, Cortese S, Aznarez-Sanado M, Magallón S, Alvarez Zallo N, Luis EO, de Castro-Manglano P, Soutullo C, Arrondo G. Risk of unintentional injuries in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact of ADHD medications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2018-01, 84: 63–71. PMID 29162520. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.007. 
  172. ^ Childress AC, Sallee FR. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today. 2012-03, 48 (3): 207–17. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. 
  173. ^ 173.0 173.1 McDonagh MS, Peterson K, Thakurta S, Low A. Drug Class Review: Pharmacologic Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Drug Class Reviews. United States Library of Medicine. 2011-12 [2019-11-21]. PMID 22420008. （原始内容存档于2016-08-31）. 
  174. ^ Prasad V, Brogan E, Mulvaney C, Grainge M, Stanton W, Sayal K. How effective are drug treatments for children with ADHD at improving on-task behaviour and academic achievement in the school classroom? A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013-04, 22 (4): 203–16. PMID 23179416. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0346-x. 
  175. ^ 175.0 175.1 Kiely B, Adesman A. What we do not know about ADHD… yet. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2015-06, 27 (3): 395–404. PMID 25888152. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000229. In addition, a consensus has not been reached on the optimal diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Moreover, the benefits and long-term effects of medical and complementary therapies for this disorder continue to be debated. These gaps in knowledge hinder the ability of clinicians to effectively recognize and treat ADHD. 
  176. ^ Hazell P. The challenges to demonstrating long-term effects of psychostimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2011-07, 24 (4): 286–90. PMID 21519262. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834742db. 
  177. ^ Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K. Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013-02, 70 (2): 185–98. PMID 23247506. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277. 
  178. ^ Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J. Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2013-09, 74 (9): 902–17. PMC 3801446  . PMID 24107764. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08287. 
  179. ^ Frodl T, Skokauskas N. Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2012-02, 125 (2): 114–26. PMID 22118249. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x. Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. 
  180. ^ Cortese, Samuele; Adamo, Nicoletta; Del Giovane, Cinzia; Mohr-Jensen, Christina; Hayes, Adrian J; Carucci, Sara; Atkinson, Lauren Z; Tessari, Luca; Banaschewski, Tobias; Coghill, David; Hollis, Chris; Simonoff, Emily; Zuddas, Alessandro; Barbui, Corrado; Purgato, Marianna; Steinhausen, Hans-Christoph; Shokraneh, Farhad; Xia, Jun; Cipriani, Andrea. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2018-09, 5 (9): 727–738. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4. 
  181. ^ Greenhill LL, Posner K, Vaughan BS, Kratochvil CJ. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2008-04, 17 (2): 347–66, ix. PMID 18295150. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.004. 
  182. ^ Stevens JR, Wilens TE, Stern TA. Using stimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical approaches and challenges. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2013, 15 (2). PMC 3733520  . PMID 23930227. doi:10.4088/PCC.12f01472. 
  183. ^ Young, Joel L. Individualizing Treatment for Adult ADHD: An Evidence-Based Guideline. Medscape. 2010 [2016-06-19]. （原始内容存档于2015-05-08）. 
  184. ^ Biederman, Joseph. New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Medscape. 2003 [2016-06-19]. （原始内容存档于2003-12-07）. As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day....
    In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.     
  185. ^ Kessler S. Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Southern Medical Journal. 1996-01, 89 (1): 33–8. PMID 8545689. doi:10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005. 
  186. ^ 186.0 186.1 Storebø OJ, Pedersen N, Ramstad E, Kielsholm ML, Nielsen SS, Krogh HB, Moreira-Maia CR, Magnusson FL, Holmskov M, Gerner T, Skoog M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Håkonsen SJ, Aagaard L, Simonsen E, Gluud C. Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018-05, 5: CD012069. PMID 29744873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012069.pub2. 
  187. ^ 187.0 187.1 187.2 Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W. Shoptaw SJ, Ali R , 编. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2009-01, (1): CD003026. PMID 19160215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3. A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention ...
    About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ...
    Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.     
  188. ^ Adderall XR Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. 2013-12 [2013-12-30]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-12-30）. Treatment-emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. ... In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (4 patients with events out of 3482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients. 
  189. ^ Mosholder AD, Gelperin K, Hammad TA, Phelan K, Johann-Liang R. Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children. Pediatrics. 2009-02, 123 (2): 611–6. PMID 19171629. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0185. 
  190. ^ Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B. Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: report of 3 new cases and review of the literature. Clinical Neuropharmacology. 2010-07, 33 (4): 204–6. PMID 20571380. doi:10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181e29174. 
  191. ^ van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK. To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended?. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011-08, 21 (8): 584–99. PMID 21530185. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008. 
  192. ^ Ibrahim K, Donyai P. Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2015-07, 19 (7): 551–68 [2019-11-21]. PMID 25253684. doi:10.1177/1087054714548035. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-06-30）. 
  193. ^ 193.0 193.1 193.2 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Sydor A, Brown RY , 编. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 323, 368. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse. ... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction 
  194. ^ Oregon Health & Science University. Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Portland, Oregon: United States National Library of Medicine. 2009 [2014-01-17]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-08）. 
  195. ^ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B. The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2006-09, 20 (5): 602–10 [2019-11-21]. PMID 16478756. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. （原始内容存档于2009-08-15）. 
  196. ^ Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M. Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2012-01, 51 (1): 86–97.e8. PMC 4321798  . PMID 22176942. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015. 
  197. ^ Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Rodrigues Pereira R. Diet and ADHD, Reviewing the Evidence: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses of Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials Evaluating the Efficacy of Diet Interventions on the Behavior of Children with ADHD. PLoS One (Systematic Review). 2017-01, 12 (1): e0169277. PMC 5266211  . PMID 28121994. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169277.  
  198. ^ Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D. The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny. 2012, 63 (2): 127–34. PMID 22928358. 
  199. ^ Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA. Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 2005-08, 15 (4): 619–27. PMID 16190793. doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.619. hdl:1811/51593. 
  200. ^ Bloch MH, Mulqueen J. Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2014-10, 23 (4): 883–97. PMC 4170184  . PMID 25220092. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002. 
  201. ^ Krause J. SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2008-04, 8 (4): 611–25. PMID 18416663. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.4.611. Zinc binds at ... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm. 
  202. ^ Bloch MH, Qawasmi A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011-10, 50 (10): 991–1000. PMC 3625948  . PMID 21961774. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008. 
  203. ^ Königs A, Kiliaan AJ. Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. July 2016, 12: 1869–82. PMC 4968854  . PMID 27555775. doi:10.2147/NDT.S68652. 
  204. ^ Approximate Prevalence Distribution of the Subtypes of ADHD as cited by Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD. New York, NY: Routledge. 2008.
  205. ^ Ramsay, J. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult ADHD : an integrative psychosocial and medical approach. New York: Routledge. 2015. ISBN 0-415-81591-6. OCLC 876336915. 
  206. ^ Lipkin, Paul H.; Mostofsky, Stewart. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurobiology of Disease. Elsevier. 2007: 631–639. ISBN 978-0-12-088592-3. doi:10.1016/b978-012088592-3/50059-1. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common developmental disorder of childhood, affecting approximately 3–9% of schoolchildren [1,2]. 
  207. ^ Thomas, R.; Sanders, S.; Doust, J.; Beller, E.; Glasziou, P. Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PEDIATRICS (secondary source or tertiary source) (American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)). 2015, 135 (4): e994–e1001 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3482. 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 6.7 to 7.8) 
  208. ^ Kessler, Ronald C.; Adler, Lenard; Barkley, Russell; Biederman, Joseph; Conners, C. Keith; Demler, Olga; Faraone, Stephen V.; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Howes, Mary J.; Secnik, Kristina; Spencer, Thomas; Ustun, T. Bedirhan; Walters, Ellen E.; Zaslavsky, Alan M. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. The American journal of psychiatry. 1963-06-08, 163 (4) [2018-09-26]. PMID 16585449. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716. （原始内容存档于2021-05-25）. 
  209. ^ RC, Kessler; Al., Et. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. - PubMed. NCBI. 2018-09-26 [2018-09-26]. （原始内容存档于2020-05-19）. 
  210. ^ TSCAP. 臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會新聞稿20160603. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-30）. 
  211. ^ Norén Selinus, E.; Molero, Y.; Lichtenstein, P.; Anckarsäter, H.; Lundström, S.; Bottai, M.; Hellner Gumpert, C. Subthreshold and threshold attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in childhood: psychosocial outcomes in adolescence in boys and girls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (Wiley-Blackwell). 2016-10-07, 134 (6): 533–545. ISSN 0001-690X. doi:10.1111/acps.12655. 
  212. ^ Biederman, Joseph; Faraone, Stephen V. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)). 2004, 192 (7): 453–454. ISSN 0022-3018. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000131803.68229.96. 
  213. ^ Polanczyk, Guilherme; de Lima, Maurício Silva; Horta, Bernardo Lessa; Biederman, Joseph; Rohde, Luis Augusto. The Worldwide Prevalence of ADHD: A Systematic Review and Metaregression Analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry (American Psychiatric Publishing). 2007, 164 (6): 942–948. ISSN 0002-953X. doi:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.942. 
  214. ^ 214.0 214.1 Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2007-06, 164 (6): 942–8. PMID 17541055. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. 
  215. ^ Jones, edited by Ming Tsuang, Mauricio Tohen, Peter B. Textbook of psychiatric epidemiology 3rd. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. : 450 [2018-09-16]. ISBN 9780470977408. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  216. ^ 全民健康保險研究資料庫 National Health Insurance Research Database. Taiwan, Republic of China. . [2017-03-17]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-15）. 
  217. ^ 注意力不足過動症ＡＤＨＤ的第三條路：心動家族. 康健雜誌. 2016-10-04 [2017-06-21]. （原始内容存档于2020-11-25） （中文）. 「台灣對這個疾病的知識不足，網路民間常流竄1-20年前過時的資料，而真正接受過此疾病診斷及整合式治療訓練的專科醫師如兒心科醫師又少之又少。」、「ADHD全世界平均盛行率為7.2%，台灣社區研究為7.5%，而台灣健保資料庫研究顯示只有2.3%接受診斷，1.6%用藥，1%的人接受足夠時間完整的治療，所以可了解有許多人求助無門因而情況日益惡化。 」 
  218. ^ Domenic Greco, PhD. Is Prevalence of ADD/ADHD the Same in the U.S., Europe, and Japan?. 2012-09-10 [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档于2020-07-03）. Japan reports a 7% of school-aged children have ADD/ADHD. 
  219. ^ Park, Subin; Cho, Maeng Je; Chang, Sung Man; Jeon, Hong Jin; Cho, Seong-Jin; Kim, Byung-Soo; Bae, Jae Nam; Wang, Hee-Ryung; Ahn, Joon Ho; Hong, Jin Pyo. Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of adult ADHD symptoms in Korea: Results of the Korean epidemiologic catchment area study. Psychiatry Research (Elsevier BV). 2011, 186 (2-3): 378–383 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.047. In the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, 4.4% of 3199 subjects aged 18 to 44 years met the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD (Kessler et al., 2006). The acceptance of ADHD symptoms in adults, because the prevalence rates of ADHD in Korean school-age children are similar to the rates reported in Western countries (Kim, 2002). 
  220. ^ Pham, Hoai Danh; Nguyen, Huu Bao Han; Tran, Diep Tuan. Prevalence of ADHD in primary school children in Vinh Long, Vietnam. Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society (Wiley). 2015-08-19, 57 (5): 856–859. ISSN 1328-8067. PMID 25864909. doi:10.1111/ped.12656. 
  221. ^ Wang, Tingting; Liu, Kaihua; Li, Zhanzhan; Xu, Yang; Liu, Yuan; Shi, Wenpei; Chen, Lizhang. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry (systematic review, meta-analysis (secondary source)). 2017, 17 (1). ISSN 1471-244X. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1187-9. 
  222. ^ 陳國齡. Child with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 認識注意力不足 /過度活躍症 (PDF). 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區政府教育局 The government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of People's Republic of China. [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-29）. 
  223. ^ Davis, J. Mark; Lao, Ian Leong. Comparison of the Level and Prevalence of ADHD Symptoms in Macao (China) and U.S. University Students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology (Informa UK Limited). 2013, 1 (4): 269–277 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1080/21683603.2013.804469. 
  224. ^ 224.0 224.1 224.2 224.3 224.4 ADHD Throughout the Years (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. [2013-08-02]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-08-07）. 
  225. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline (PDF). NHS. 2008-09-24 [2018-12-26]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2014-02-25）. 
  226. ^ Dalsgaard, S. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2013-02,. 22 Suppl 1: S43–8. PMID 23202886. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0360-z. 
  227. ^ Palmer ED, Finger S. An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798). Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2001-05, 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. 
  228. ^ Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. 1798: 271 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9780404082123. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  229. ^ An Early Description of ADHD (Inattentive Subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and `Mental Restlessness'（1798）Child and Adolescent Mental Health[dead link]，Volume 6, Number 2, May 2001 , pp. 66–73 (8)
  230. ^ Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 1: Definition and History of ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. Springer Science. 2010: 2–3 [2021-02-06]. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  231. ^ Weiss M. ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. JHU Press. 2010 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9781421401317. （原始内容存档于2020-09-06）. 
  232. ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA. Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate. Human Psychopharmacology. 2009-02, 24 (1): 1–17. PMC 2629554  . PMID 19051222. doi:10.1002/hup.992. 
  233. ^ Rasmussen N. Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950. J . Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 2006-07, 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. 
  234. ^ Barkley, Russell A; Fischer, Mariellen; Smallish, Lori; Fletcher, Kenneth. Young Adult Outcome of Hyperactive Children: Adaptive Functioning in Major Life Activities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2006, 45 (2): 192–202. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 16429090. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000189134.97436.e2. 
  235. ^ BIEDERMAN, JOSEPH; MONUTEAUX, MICHAEL C.; MICK, ERIC; SPENCER, THOMAS; WILENS, TIMOTHY E.; SILVA, JULIE M.; SNYDER, LINDSEY E.; FARAONE, STEPHEN V. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychological medicine (Cambridge University Press (CUP)). 2006-01-18, 36 (02): 167. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 16420713. doi:10.1017/s0033291705006410. 
  236. ^ Mannuzza, Salvatore; Klein, Rachel G.; Bessler, Abrah; Malloy, Patricia; LaPadula, Maria. Adult Psychiatric Status of Hyperactive Boys Grown Up. The American journal of psychiatry (American Psychiatric Publishing). 1998, 155 (4): 493–498. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 9545994. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.4.493. 
  237. ^ Biederman, Joseph; Mick, Eric; Fried, Ronna; Wilner, Nicole; Spencer, Thomas J.; Faraone, Stephen V. Are stimulants effective in the treatment of executive function deficits? Results from a randomized double blind study of OROS-methylphenidate in adults with ADHD. European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (Elsevier BV). 2011, 21 (7): 508–515. ISSN 0924-977X. PMID 21303732. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2010.11.005. 
  238. ^ Faraone SV, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Biederman J, Buitelaar JK, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rohde LA, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Tannock R, Franke B. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Nature Reviews. Disease Primers (Review). 2015-08, 1: 15020 [2018-12-31]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.497.1346  . PMID 27189265. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.20. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-07-28）. 
  239. ^ Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2 
  240. ^ Mannuzza, S; Klein, RG. Long-term prognosis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. 2000, 9 (3): 711–26. ISSN 1056-4993. PMID 10944664. 
  241. ^ Molina, Brooke S.G.; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Swanson, James M.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Vitiello, Benedetto; Jensen, Peter S.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Hoza, Betsy; Hechtman, Lily; Abikoff, Howard B.; Elliott, Glen R.; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Wells, Karen C.; Wigal, Timothy; Gibbons, Robert D.; Hur, Kwan; Houck, Patricia R. The MTA at 8 Years: Prospective Follow-up of Children Treated for Combined-Type ADHD in a Multisite Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2009, 48 (5): 484–500. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 3063150  . PMID 19318991. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31819c23d0. 
  242. ^ Hechtman, Lily; Swanson, James M.; Sibley, Margaret H.; Stehli, Annamarie; Owens, Elizabeth B.; Mitchell, John T.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Molina, Brooke S.G.; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Jensen, Peter S.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Perez Algorta, Guillermo; Howard, Andrea L.; Hoza, Betsy; Etcovitch, Joy; Houssais, Sylviane; Lakes, Kimberley D.; Nichols, J. Quyen; Vitiello, Benedetto; Severe, Joanne B.; Jensen, Peter S.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Hoagwood, Kimberly; Richters, John; Vereen, Donald; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Elliott, Glen R.; Wells, Karen C.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Murray, Desiree W.; Conners, C. Keith; March, John; Swanson, James; Wigal, Timothy; Cantwell, Dennis P.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Hechtman, Lily; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Molina, Brooke; Hoza, Betsy; Pelham, William E.; Gibbons, Robert D.; Marcus, Sue; Hur, Kwan; Kraemer, Helena C.; Hanley, Thomas; Stern, Karen. Functional Adult Outcomes 16 Years After Childhood Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: MTA Results. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2016, 55 (11): 945–952.e2. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 5113724  . PMID 27806862. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.07.774. 
  243. ^ Roy, Arunima; Hechtman, Lily; Arnold, L. Eugene; Swanson, James M.; Molina, Brooke S.G.; Sibley, Margaret H.; Howard, Andrea L.; Vitiello, Benedetto; Severe, Joanne B.; Jensen, Peter S.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Hoagwood, Kimberly; Richters, John; Vereen, Donald; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Elliott, Glen R.; Wells, Karen C.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Murray, Desiree W.; Conners, C. Keith; March, John; Swanson, James; Wigal, Timothy; Cantwell, Dennis P.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Hechtman, Lily; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Molina, Brooke; Hoza, Betsy; Pelham, William E.; Gibbons, Robert D.; Marcus, Sue; Hur, Kwan; Kraemer, Helena C.; Hanley, Thomas; Stern, Karen. Childhood Predictors of Adult Functional Outcomes in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (MTA). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2017, 56 (8): 687–695.e7. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 5555165  . PMID 28735698. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.020. 
  244. ^ RICHTERS, JOHN E.; ARNOLD, L. EUGENE; JENSEN, PETER S.; ABIKOFF, HOWARD; CONNERS, C. KEITH; GREENHILL, LAURENCE L.; HECHTMAN, LILY; HINSHAW, STEPHEN P.; PELHAM, WILLIAM E.; SWANSON, JAMES M. NIMH Collaborative Multisite Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD: I. Background and Rationale. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 1995, 34 (8): 987–1000. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 7665456. doi:10.1097/00004583-199508000-00008. 
  245. ^ CELEBRATION: Love & Bliss FLOW WITH ME..! 4/14/14. Eliza Dushku's official website. [2016-10-15]. 
  246. ^ 林瑩真. 過動男童遭霸凌一年半　學校上吊輕生「妹目睹崩潰痛哭」. TVBS. 2018-09-26 [2018-09-28]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29） （中文）. 
  247. ^ 紅豆Q粉粿. 放學前先遮傷口！過動症男孩瞞著父母獨忍霸凌　自殺當天微笑上學. 鍵盤大檸檬. 2018-09-14 [2018-09-28]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29） （中文）. 
  248. ^ 'Bullied' schoolboy, 14, was found hanged in school toilet by his sister as dad calls for headteacher's resignation. The Sun. 2018-09-20 [2018-09-29]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29）. 
  249. ^ Chen, Vincent Chin-Hung; Chan, Hsiang-Lin; Wu, Shu-I; Lee, Meng; Lu, Mong-Liang; Liang, Hsin-Yi; Dewey, Michael E.; Stewart, Robert; Lee, Charles Tzu-Chi. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Mortality Risk in Taiwan. JAMA network open (American Medical Association (AMA)). 2019-08-07, 2 (8): e198714. ISSN 2574-3805. PMID 31390039. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.8714. 
  250. ^ 呂苡榕. 健保給付制度造成醫療資源分配傾斜. Taiwan: 端傳媒. 2017-04-25 [2017-04-25]. （原始内容存档于2017-05-01）. 健保給付制度困境令孩童就醫難\ 除了診斷的時間受到侷限，行為治療、親職教育等資源更是少得可憐。醫院的親子團體治療每一期排隊至少要排上四個月到半年才有可能有名額...... 
  251. ^ 251.0 251.1 專注不足/過度活耀協會. 《立法是否保障特殊教育需要學生的出路？》論壇. Hong Kong, China. 2015-03-29 [2017-03-15]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-05）. 
  252. ^ 252.0 252.1 Guidelines May Have Helped Curb ADHD Diagnoses in Preschoolers. MedlinePlus.gov. HealthDay. 2016-11-15 [2017-01-01]. （原始内容存档于2016-12-25）. Still, too few with disorder receive behavior therapy, child psychologist says. 
  253. ^ NIH awards nearly $100 million for Autism Centers of Excellence program. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-09-06 [2017-11-08]. （原始内容存档于2017-11-09）. Duke University, Durham, North Carolina – Understanding and potentially treating ASD-ADHD combination.
    An estimated 40 to 60 percent of people with ASD have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which encompasses such symptoms as difficulty paying attention, problems controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Co-investigators Geraldine Dawson, Ph.D., and Scott Kollins, Ph.D., aim to learn how ADHD may influence the diagnosis and treatment of autism and plan to observe children who have ASD alone, ASD and ADHD, and ADHD alone and compare them to typically developing children. They will also test whether the stimulant medication used to treat ADHD will help children with both conditions.     
  254. ^ WHO. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 世界衛生組織 Wolrd Health Organization. [2017-02-22]. （原始内容存档于2017-01-08） （美国英语）. 
  255. ^ 世界卫生组织. 注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的药物和非药物介入/干预. 世界卫生组织. [2017-02-22]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-29） （中文（简体））. 
  256. ^ 亞洲不應使用西方精神科對於注意力不足過動症（ADHD）的診斷，及興奮劑處方的治療. [2017-09-02]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-02）. 
  257. ^ 鄭毅; 刘靖. 《中国注意缺陷多动障碍防治指南》第二版解读. 中华精神科杂志. 2016, 0 (3): p.132–135 [2017-03-04]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-04）. 
  258. ^ 【校園欺凌】產後抑鬱媽媽：過度活躍的七歲兒子，最怕他自殺. 明周文化. 2018-03-19 [2018-03-31]. （原始内容存档于2018-03-29） （中文）. 

書目

  • Edward M. Hallowell; John J. Ratey. 分心不是我的錯（增訂版）：正確診療ADD，重建有計畫的生活方式 Driven to Distraction. 遠流出版. 2015-09-01. ISBN 978-957-32-7700-2. 
  • Edward M. Hallowell, M.D.; John J. Ratey, M.D. 《分心也有好成績》. 丁凡譯. 台北: 遠流出版社. 2006. ISBN 9573259311. 
  • 高淑芬; 陳劭芊. 注意力不足過動症. 衛生福利部精神疾病衛教叢書. 中華民國衛生福利部. 2015-06 [2018-02-27]. ISBN 9789860454154. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-02-19） （中文（繁體））. 

外部連結

 
维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：注意力不足過動症
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=注意力不足過動症&oldid=85241093”