User:A22234798/新加坡戰役
新加坡戰役 | |||||||
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第二次世界大戰的太平洋戰爭的一部分 | |||||||
1942年2月15日,日本軍官帶領著亞瑟·佩希瓦中將走在白旗底下,前往協商新加坡盟軍投降的地點。這是歷史上規模最大的英軍主力部隊投降。 | |||||||
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参战方 | |||||||
馬來亞司令部: 第三軍團 第八師 第十八師 馬來軍團 海峽殖民地志願軍 第232中隊 (有限介入) |
第二十五軍: 近衛師團 第五師 第十八師 第三空軍師 大日本帝國海軍 | ||||||
指挥官与领导者 | |||||||
亞瑟·佩希瓦(被俘) 戈登·班奈特 路易斯·希斯(被俘) 默頓·貝克威斯-史密斯(被俘) |
山下奉文 西村琢磨[1] 松井拓郎 牟田口廉也 | ||||||
兵力 | |||||||
85,000人 | 36,000人 | ||||||
伤亡与损失 | |||||||
85,000人 5,000人戰死或受傷 80,000人被俘 |
4,485人 1,713人戰死 2,772人受傷[2] |
新加坡戰役(或稱新加坡保衛戰、新加坡淪陷)是二戰的東南亞戰場中重要的一戰,日軍在此戰中向同盟國據守的新加坡要塞進攻。新加坡是大英帝國在東南亞重要的軍事基地,並素有「東方的直布羅陀」的美名。這場戰役從1942年2月8日持續到15日。
最終日軍攻陷新加坡,且這是史上最大一批英軍主力部隊的投降。[2]這批部隊約有80,000人,分別來自英軍、印度軍及澳大利亞軍,與馬來亞戰役中被日軍俘虜的50,000人,一同成為了戰俘。英國首相溫斯頓·邱吉爾稱新加坡的淪陷給日本是可恥的,並稱那是英國歷史上「最沉痛的浩劫」(worst disaster)與「規模最大的投降」(largest capitulation)。[3] 僅僅七天內,號稱「堅不可摧」的新加坡堡壘便告淪陷。
背景
戰爭爆發
為了回應日本持續的侵略中國,盟國對日本發起了貿易禁運。日軍為了尋求必要材料的替代資源以便能在太平洋戰爭中對抗盟軍,於是他們入侵馬來亞半島。[4]新加坡藉由新柔長堤與馬來亞南部連接。日軍認為新加坡既能做為港口,又可做為侵略其他盟軍控制區的跳板,還能鞏固已經佔領的領土。
日軍還試圖消滅在中國抗日戰爭中支持中國的新加坡人。馬來亞和新加坡的華人曾以經濟支援來幫助中國對抗日本的侵略,然而這些努力卻因派系不同,而使援助被分別分予國共內戰中的雙方。儘管西安事變讓國民黨與共產黨重新合作抗日,但雙方間的鬥爭卻仍持續著。援助資金除了用於人道主義經援之外,還被進一步瓜分給國民黨或共產黨。然而這些援助仍對阻撓日軍在中國的進展有所貢獻,陳嘉庚是新加坡華人社區內的著名慈善家,也是個重要的經援者,許多救濟的推動與組織都是他發起的。新加坡華人各種形式對中國的援助,最終成了日本入侵馬來亞與新加坡的動機之一。
入侵馬來亞
历史系列条目 |
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新加坡历史 |
新加坡主题 |
日本第二十五軍從法屬印度支那出發,於1941年12月8日對泰國及馬來亞北部發起兩棲作戰,開啟入侵的序幕。[5]這項行動與日軍偷襲珍珠港的時間點相近,目的是為了阻止美國介入東南亞戰事。在泰國的日軍強迫泰國政府將泰國的軍事基地借予日軍,以便日軍能使用基地去入侵東南亞地區,然後再透過泰馬邊界入侵馬來亞地區。與此同時,日軍開始戰略轟炸新加坡,並從12月29日開始空襲新加坡,但擁有充足彈藥的高射炮防止了日軍投下的炸彈摧毀新加坡島。
日本第二十五軍在馬來亞北部遭遇到英屬印度陸軍第三軍團的抵抗。雖然第二十五軍與在馬來亞及新加坡的盟軍相比下寡不敵眾,但日軍指揮官集中了他們的兵力,且日軍還在密接支援、裝甲、部隊協調、作戰戰術及作戰經驗等等均佔上風。此外,儘管日軍持續使用包抄攻擊,英軍還是多次讓自己陷入被包抄的危險,並相信馬來亞叢林是無法通行的。大日本帝國陸軍航空隊數量遠勝對手,且其飛行員所受之訓練也好過在馬來亞、婆羅洲及新加坡未受訓練的盟軍飛官,再加上盟軍擁有的裝備也較日軍來的低劣;日本空軍優秀的戰鬥機(尤其是零式艦上戰鬥機)幫助日本奪取了空優;而盟軍沒有坦克,只有些許裝甲車輛的情形,以上種種情形均導致他們陷入極大的不利。
「Z艦隊」所屬的威爾斯親王號戰艦、卻敵號戰列巡洋艦及四艘驅逐艦在日軍空襲前抵達馬來亞地區。這支艦隊的抵達原是用以威嚇日本,然而日本空軍卻將威爾斯親王號與卻敵號擊沉,使得馬來亞半島東海岸暴露在日軍兩棲突襲的危險中。日軍迅速孤立、包抄並逼降了防守海岸的印度軍,並在人數劣勢下持續在半島上推進及摧毀盟軍防線。另外日軍也使用腳踏車步兵及輕型坦克來快速通過馬來亞叢林。
雖然有更多的盟軍單位(包含澳大利亞第八師)加入這場戰役,日軍仍能阻止盟軍重整,並佔領城市,向新加坡方向前進。新加坡是美英荷澳聯合指揮部(ABDACOM)的支柱,該指揮部也是二戰中盟軍第一個聯合指揮部。新加坡還控制了印度洋與太平洋間的麻六甲海峽(為主要船隻出入處)。1月31日,最後一批盟軍離開馬來亞,盟軍工兵炸毀新柔長堤以切斷柔佛州及新加坡的連接。不久後,日軍透過偽裝成新加坡平民,由充氣船通過柔佛海峽滲透進新加坡城內。
序幕
日軍入侵新加坡的前幾星期,盟軍正陷入高階軍官間的疲弱及公開破壞性的不和,[6]以及來自澳洲總理約翰·科廷的壓力。[7]駐軍總司令亞瑟·佩希瓦中將擁有85,000名兵力,帳面上似乎超越四個師的人數。在第一線駐守的部隊共有38個步兵營(約70,000人,13營來自英軍,6個來自澳大利亞,17個來自英屬印度,還有兩營來自馬來人)及三個機槍營。由默頓·貝克威斯-史密斯少將指揮的英軍第十八步兵師剛抵達新加坡且兵力完整,但缺乏經驗與妥善的訓練;多數單位並未達到滿編,有些甚至因為在馬來亞戰役中遭到重創而被合併。而當地的步兵營沒有作戰經驗,有的甚至沒受過訓練。[8]
佩希瓦從澳大利亞第八師中調撥兩個旅給戈登·班奈特,讓他負責防守新加坡島的西側,包含西北方易受入侵的幾個點。這裡主要是紅樹林沼澤與叢林,其間有河流與小溪穿過。西側區域的核心是登加空軍基地,該空軍基地是當時新加坡最大的機場。澳大利亞第二十二旅被指派到西側去戍守長達10 mi(16 km)的區域;第二十七旅則被分配到新柔長堤西邊,一塊大小約4,000 yd(3,700米)的區域,這些步兵皆擁有剛抵達的澳大利亞第四分之二機槍營(Australian 2/4th Machine-Gun Battalion[9])來加強防禦。另外,第四十四印度步兵旅也由班奈特負責指揮。
由路易斯·希斯指揮的印度第三軍團(轄下包含B.W.基指揮的印度第十一步兵師、英軍第十八師及英屬印度第十五步兵旅)被派駐東北側,被人稱為「北方地帶」的區塊,那裏有座海軍基地位於三巴旺。包含市中心東南方地區的「南方地帶」,由法蘭克·基斯·西蒙斯指揮的部隊負責防守。他的部隊約由18營組成,其中包含馬來亞第一步兵旅、海峽殖民地志願軍及英屬印度第十二步兵旅。
山下奉文將軍及其軍官透過空中偵察、陸上偵察兵、滲透分子及能看穿海峽的制高點(像是寧靜的武吉王宮,那是柔佛蘇丹的皇宮),完完整整的了解了盟軍的部署。他們就在寧靜的武吉王宮及柔佛州的蘇丹依布拉欣大樓內駐紮與規劃入侵新加坡的事宜。[10][11]
雖然山下奉文的上司認為武吉王宮是個易受攻擊的目標,但他仍有信心英軍不會朝皇宮開火,因為那是神聖且為柔佛蘇丹的所在地。山下的猜測是正確的,事後證明英軍根本不敢攻擊皇宮一帶。
盟軍從2月3日開始受到日軍的炮擊,同時日本空軍在接下來五天內加強了空襲的強度。隨著陸空兩方砲轟強度的增加,盟軍單位與其指揮官間的通訊遭到重創,並嚴重影響新加坡島的防務設置。
新加坡著名的大孔徑海岸砲群,包含兩座砲台,一座擁有三門15英寸(380 mm)火炮,另一座則擁有兩門15英寸(380 mm)火炮,砲群擁有穿甲彈及高能炸藥可供反擊。其中儲存的穿甲彈主要是被設計用來擊穿重裝甲保護的戰艦,而對人體傷害反而並不有效。對於火炮不能向日軍開火是肇因於在設計時只能面向南方的說法,這是個誤解,因為事實並非如此。雖然缺乏高能炸藥的原因就是認為敵方不會從北方來,但大部分的火炮都能轉向北方開火。Although placed to fire on enemy ships to the south, most of the guns could turn northwards and they did fire at the invaders. Military analysts later estimated that if the guns had been well supplied with HE shells the Japanese attackers would have suffered heavy casualties, but the invasion would not have been prevented by this means alone.
山下奉文擁有來自三個師的三萬多人,其中包含西村琢磨少將麾下的近衛師團、松井拓郎少將指揮的大日本帝國第五師團以及由牟田口廉也率領的大日本帝國第十八師團。精銳近衛師團還包含一輕坦克旅。
戰鬥
日軍登陸
日軍的進攻因新柔長堤被炸毀而推遲了一星期。2月8日晚上8點30分,來自第五師與第十八師的四千人發起了對新加坡島的第一波攻擊,澳洲機槍手立即對他們的船隻進行攻擊。日軍突襲莎琳汶沙灘時,遭遇了由哈洛德·泰勒旅長指揮的澳大利亞第二十二旅,雙方一陣交火。
激烈的戰鬥持續竟日[12],但在日軍人數不斷增加,以及日軍火力、空優及情報均占優勢的情形下,盟軍開始敗退。在島的西北地帶,日軍利用河流與小溪逐漸穿越盟軍防線。到了午夜,兩個澳大利亞旅已經互相失去聯繫,且第二十二旅則被迫撤退。半夜一點鐘,更多日軍登上島的西北地帶,同時盟軍也投入了最後的澳大利亞預備隊到戰場上。當2月9日的曙光升起時,第二十二旅的各部已遭消滅或被包圍,其中澳大利亞第十八分之二步兵營[13]折損了一半以上的兵力。[14]
空戰
盟軍在空中的掩護僅有10架停放在加冷機場的颶風戰鬥機(隸屬於皇家空軍第232中隊)。這是因為登加、實里達和勝寶旺三座機場均在新山的日軍射程範圍內。加冷機場是唯一可以起降飛機並讓戰機撤離的地方,殘存的中隊與戰機在1月時被撤往荷屬東印度,以增援該地的戰事。[15]
1941年12月8日早晨4點15分,新加坡遭到日軍長程轟炸機的第一次空襲,這些飛機的基地位於日據的印度支那,其中包括被稱為尼爾(Nell)的九六式陸上攻撃機,以及被稱為貝蒂(Betty)的一式陸上攻擊機。這些轟炸機在空襲市中心時,同時也對勝寶旺海軍基地與島北部的機場進行了轟炸。第一波的空襲過後的整個十二月,出現了不少錯誤的警報以及幾次罕見的襲擊命中了外圍的軍事設施(如海軍基地),但從未有任何空襲真的影響到新加坡市區。根據記載,市區接下來遭受的空襲發生於12月29及30日晚間,然後夜間空襲持續了一個星期,之後直到1942年1月12日才繼續日間空襲。接著從1月12日以降至英軍投降為止,日軍的戰線日益逼近新加坡島,而日間與夜間的空襲,其強度與頻率也隨之增高,造成了數千名平民傷亡。
12月間,由24名飛行員所組成的五核心中隊與51架颶風Mk II型戰鬥機被送往新加坡。他們於1942年1月3日抵達,而這個時候的F2A戰鬥機中隊已不堪重負。於是組建了第232中隊被,並將第488中隊RNZAF從水牛中隊改編為颶風戰鬥機。第232中對於1月20日加入到行動當中,並在當天以三架颶風戰鬥機的代價摧毀了三架一式戰鬥機「奧斯卡」[16]。然而,這些颶風戰鬥機也如先前的水牛戰鬥機一樣,開始在激烈的纏鬥中承受嚴重損失。
1月27日至1月30期間,另外48架颶風戰鬥機隨著由頑強號航空母艦搭載的皇家空軍第226團,從another 48 Hurricanes (Mk IIA) arrived with No. 226 Group (four squadrons) on the aircraft carrier “Indomitable”号92 (6), from which they flew to airfields code-named P1 and P2, near Palembang, Sumatra in the Dutch East Indies. The staggered arrival of the Hurricanes—along with inadequate early warning systems—meant that Japanese air raids were able to destroy a large proportion of the Hurricanes on the ground in Sumatra and Singapore.
2月8日早晨, a number of aerial dogfights took place over Sarimbun Beach and other western areas. In the first encounter, the last ten Hurricanes were scrambled from Kallang Airfield to intercept a Japanese formation of about 84 planes, flying from Johor to provide air cover for their invasion force.[15] In two sorties, the Hurricanes shot down six Japanese planes for the loss of one of their own; they flew back to Kallang halfway through the battle, hurriedly re-fuelled, then returned to it.[17] Air battles went on for the rest of the day, and by nightfall it was clear that with the few machines Percival had left, Kallang could no longer be used as a base. With his assent the remaining eight flyable Hurricanes were withdrawn to Palembang, Sumatra, and Kallang became merely an advanced landing ground.[18] No allied aircraft were seen again over Singapore, and the Japanese had achieved complete air supremacy.[19]
2月10日晚間,阿奇博爾德·韋維爾將軍下令將剩餘的盟國空軍私下轉移至荷屬東印度。就在此時,加冷機場的跑道因炸彈造成的坑洞與不平,而無法繼續使用。[15]
第二天
由於誤信東北方將有更多日軍登陸,佩希瓦並未增援第二十二旅。2月9日,日軍登陸方向轉移至西南方,在那裏遭遇了第四十四印度步兵旅。不久盟軍被迫撤往更東方。班奈特決定組織武林地區(位於登加機場的東方,句容的北方)的第二條防線,即著名的「句容防線」。
一直到2月9日晚間十點近衛師團登陸前,鄧肯·馬克斯威旅長麾下位於北方的澳大利亞第二十七旅並未遭遇日軍的進攻。日軍這次的登陸行動進行的相當不順,在澳軍迫擊炮與機槍的攻擊下遭受慘重的損失,同時也因為燃燒中的油滲入水當中加劇了部隊的死傷。一小群部隊抵達岸邊並試圖守住脆弱的灘頭堡。
指揮與控制不對的問題進一步削弱了盟軍的防禦。馬克斯威警覺到第二十二旅正遭受逐漸增加的進攻壓力,卻無法聯絡泰勒旅長並警告其正在遭到日軍的包圍。儘管馬克斯威的旅團成功擊退了日軍,並對班奈特上司抗命,他仍命屬下從中北部的克蘭芝撤出。盟軍因此失去對比鄰長堤西側海灘的控制。
日軍突破
在克蘭芝防線的門戶大開下,近衛師團得以在不受抵抗的情況下,讓裝甲部隊登陸。坦克群藉由浮具穿越了海峽,並沿著兀蘭路迅速推往南方。這使得山下奉文得以包抄位於句容防線的第二十二旅,並繞過印度第十一師所在的海軍基地。然而,近衛師團仍未能抓住衝入市中心的機會。
2月10日晚間,英國首相溫斯頓·邱吉爾拍了封電報給韋維爾,內容如下:
我認為你應該瞭解到,我們所看見新加坡的情勢。It was reported to Cabinet by the C.I.G.S. [Chief of the Imperial General Staff, General Alan Brooke] that Percival has over 100,000 [sic] men, of whom 33,000 are British and 17,000 Australian. It is doubtful whether the Japanese have as many in the whole Malay Peninsula... In these circumstances the defenders must greatly outnumber Japanese forces who have crossed the straits, and in a well-contested battle they should destroy them. There must at this stage be no thought of saving the troops or sparing the population. The battle must be fought to the bitter end at all costs. The 18th Division has a chance to make its name in history. Commanders and senior officers should die with their troops. The honour of the British Empire and of the British Army is at stake. I rely on you to show no mercy to weakness in any form. With the Russians fighting as they are and the Americans so stubborn at Luzon, the whole reputation of our country and our race is involved. It is expected that every unit will be brought into close contact with the enemy and fight it out ...[20]
Wavell subsequently told Percival that the ground forces were to fight on to the end, and that there should not be a general surrender in Singapore.[2]
2月11日,由於瞭解到日軍的補給正迅速見底,山下奉文決定虛張聲勢一番,並告知白思華「要盡速放棄無意義與絕望的抵抗」。到了這個情況,第二十二旅的兵力已減少至數百人By this stage, the fighting strength of the 22nd Brigade—which had borne the brunt of the Japanese attacks—had been reduced to a few hundred men. The Japanese had captured the Bukit Timah area, including most of the allied ammunition and fuel and giving them control of the main water supplies.
The next day, the Allied lines stabilised around a small area in the south-east of the island and fought off determined Japanese assaults. Other units—including the 1st Malaya Infantry Brigade—had joined in. A Malayan platoon—led by 2nd Lieutenant Adnan bin Saidi—held the Japanese for two days at the Battle of Pasir Panjang. His unit defended Bukit Chandu, an area which included a major Allied ammunition store. Adnan was executed by the Japanese after his unit was overrun.
On 13 February, with the Allies still losing ground, senior officers advised Percival to surrender in the interests of minimising civilian casualties. Percival refused, but unsuccessfully sought authority to surrender from his superiors.
That same day, military police executed a convicted British traitor, Captain Patrick Heenan, who had been an Air Liaison Officer with the Indian Army.[22] Japanese military intelligence had recruited Heenan before the war, and he had used a radio to assist them in targeting Allied airfields in northern Malaya. He had been arrested on 10 December and court-martialled in January. Heenan was shot at Keppel Harbour, on the south side of Singapore, and his body was thrown into the sea.[2]
The following day, the remaining Allied units fought on; civilian casualties mounted as one million people crowded into the area still held by the Allies, and bombing and artillery fire intensified. Civilian authorities began to fear that the water supply would give out.
亞歷山大醫院大屠殺
At about 13:00 on 14 February, Japanese soldiers advanced towards the Alexandra Barracks Hospital.[23] A British lieutenant—acting as an envoy with a white flag—approached the Japanese forces but was bayoneted and killed.[24] After the Japanese troops entered the hospital, a number of patients, including those undergoing surgery at the time, were killed along with doctors and members of nursing staff.[25] The following day about 200 male staff members and patients who had been assembled and bound the previous day,[26] many of them walking wounded, were ordered to walk about 400米(440 yd) to an industrial area. Anyone who fell on the way was bayoneted. The men were forced into a series of small, badly ventilated rooms and were imprisoned overnight without water. Some died during the night as a result of their treatment.[27] The remainder were bayoneted the following morning.[28]
Private Haines of the Wiltshire Regiment—another survivor—had been in the hospital suffering from malaria. He wrote a four-page account of the massacre, that was sold by his daughter by private auction in 2008;[29] Haines describes how the Japanese did not consider those who were weak, wounded or who had surrendered to be worthy of life. After surrendering, staff were ordered to proceed down a corridor, where Sergeant Rogers was bayoneted twice in the back and another officer, Captain Parkinson, was bayoneted through the throat. Others killed included Captain Heevers and Private Lewis. Captain Smiley and Private Sutton were bayoneted but survived by playing dead. Many who had not been imprisoned in the tiny rooms in the industrial area were systematically taken away in small groups and bayoneted or macheted to death. This continued for 24 hours, leaving 320 men and one woman dead. Those who lost their lives included a corporal from the Loyal Regiment, who was impaled on the operating table, and even a Japanese prisoner who was perhaps mistaken for a Gurkha.[來源請求]
There were only five known survivors, including George Britton (1922–2009) of the East Surrey Regiment,[30] and Private Haines, also Hugo Hughes, who lost his right leg, and George Wort, who lost an arm, both of the Malay Regiment.[31] There may have been others. Haines' account came to light only after his death. Survivors were so traumatised that they rarely spoke of their ordeal.
After three days with no food or drink, those unable to walk were taken to Changi on wheelbarrows and carts, no motorised vehicles being available.
新加坡淪陷
到了2月15日早晨,日軍已經突破最後一道防線,而盟軍正在耗盡糧食與彈藥。高射炮也缺乏彈藥來阻止更多日軍的空襲,如此將導致市中心更多傷亡。盟軍四處劫掠與開小差使得市中心更加混亂。[32]
9點30分,佩希瓦在福康寧開了一場高階軍官會議。他提出兩個選擇:要嘛發動立即的反攻奪回水庫及位於武吉知馬的軍用存糧站,並逐退位於制高點的敵方砲火,不然就宣布投降。在場的所有軍官都認為沒有一種反擊是可能達成,於是佩希瓦選擇投降。
英軍派了一個代表團前去日軍指揮部協商投降事宜。這個代表團包含一位高階軍官、殖民地書記及一位翻譯員。They set off in a motor car bearing a Union Jack and a white flag of truce toward the enemy lines to discuss a cessation of hostilities.[2] They returned with orders that Percival himself proceed with staff officers to the Ford Motor Factory, where Yamashita would lay down the terms of surrender. A further requirement was that the Japanese Rising Sun Flag be hoisted over the tallest building in Singapore, the Cathay Building, as soon as possible to maximise the psychological impact of the official surrender. Percival formally surrendered shortly after 17:15.
日軍提出接受英軍投降的要求:
- 在新加坡的盟軍全部無條件投降(包含路、海、空三軍)。
- 當晚8點30分停止雙方敵對行為。
- 所以部隊留在原位靜候進一步指示。
- 要完整移交所有武器、軍事裝備、船艦、飛機及秘密文件。
- 為防止市區陷入搶劫之類的暴動,在全部的軍隊從新加坡撤出以前,由一千名英軍負責維護治安直到日軍接手為止。
當日稍早,佩希瓦下令部下於下午四點前,銷毀所有機密及技術設施、密碼、代碼、機密文件以及重型火砲。山下奉文接受他對於不留任何船隻與飛機於新加坡的保證。根據同盟通信社的報導,山下奉文還保證英軍及澳軍們的性命將不會有所為害,同時也包括仍滯留於新加坡的英國公民。
班奈特和一些他麾下的軍官因他將第八師的指揮權交給旅長,並徵用小船逃跑而引起爭議。[33]但他們最終仍成功逃回澳洲。
後續發展
日本在英軍投降後佔領了新加坡,新加坡開始日治時期。日本的報紙歡天喜地宣布勝利,認為他們即將在整場戰爭中獲勝。[34] 新加坡改名為昭南島 ([昭南島 Shōnan-tō] 错误:{{Lang-xx}}:文本有斜体标记(帮助); 意即「南方光明之島」,或「昭和天皇在南洋獲取的領土」)。日軍對華人進行報復,並消滅任何的反日的組織及行動。由於中國抗日戰爭仍在進行,日本當局對華人採以懷疑態度,並在肅清大屠殺中對華人進行種族清洗。其他在新加坡的種族(如馬來人及印度人)也不能倖免。接下來的三年半內,所有日本統治下的新加坡居民們,過著極度痛苦的生活。
許多被俘的英軍與澳軍均被關在新加坡樟宜監獄,多數均無法返回家中。其他數以千計的俘虜則被以地獄船為名的戰俘船,運送到亞洲的其他地區(包含日本)強制勞動。(著名例子像是泰緬死亡鐵路及北婆羅洲的山打根機場)。當中有許多人上船時遇難。
日軍相當成功地招募那些被俘的印度士兵,1942年2月時招募到約有40,000名印度軍,其中約30,000人加入了傾日的「印度國民軍」,並在緬甸戰役中攻擊盟軍。[35]其他則成了樟宜戰俘營的守衛。然而,仍有許多印度軍不願接受招降而繼續做為戰俘,有些人被帶往日本佔領的南太平洋地區強制勞動。多數人過得相當艱苦且遭到嚴重虐待,與其他日軍的俘虜處境相去不遠。其中有六千人因1943-1945年澳軍與美軍的解放,而很幸運存活下來。[35]
1945年日本投降後,山下奉文在當年稍早因在菲律賓犯下的戰爭罪行,被美國軍事委員會審判,但這些戰爭罪刑卻未包含山下及其部隊在馬來亞或新加坡的暴行。他最終於1946年2月23日在菲律賓被處以絞刑。[2]
參見
註腳
- ^ L, Klemen. Rear-Admiral Shoji Nishimura. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. 1999-2000.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Smith, Colin. Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II. Penguin Group. 2006. ISBN 0-141-01036-3.
- ^ Churchill, Winston (1986). The Hinge of Fate, Volume 4. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, p. 81. ISBN 0395410584
- ^ Thompson, p. 92–94.
- ^ L, Klemen; Bert Kossen, Pierre-Emmanuel Bernaudin, Dr. Leo Niehorster, Akira Takizawa, Sean Carr, Jim Broshot, Nowfel Leulliot. Seventy minutes before Pearl Harbor – The landing at Kota Bharu, Malaya, on December 7th 1941. Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. 1999-2000.
- ^ Thompson, p. 103–130.
- ^ Thompson, p. 60–61.
- ^ The Malayan Campaign 1941. [7 December 2005].
- ^ 澳大利亞第四分之二機槍營的介紹
- ^ Lee, Singapore: The Unexpected Nation, pg 37
- ^ War for the Empire: Malaya and Singapore, Dec 1941 to Feb 1942, Richard Reid, Australia-Japan Research Project
- ^ P.Elphick in S'pore the pregnable fortress – see bibliography – reports a quite different version
- ^ 澳大利亞第十八分之二步兵營的介紹
- ^ P.Elphick, op. cit. explains that this is mainly due to the high level of ... desertion among Australian units
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Frank Owen. The Fall of Singapore. England: Penguin Books. 2001. ISBN 0-14-139133-2.
- ^ Cull, Brian and Sortehaug, Brian and Paul. Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942. London: Grub Street, 2004. (ISBN 1-904010-80-6), pp. 27–29. Note: 64 Sentai lost three Ki-43s and claimed five Hurricanes.
- ^ Hawker Hurricane shot down on 8 February 1942. [11 August 2007].
- ^ Captured Hurricane, Captured J-Aircraft
- ^ Percival's Despatches
- ^ The Second World War. Vol. IV. By Winston Churchill.
- ^ Shores 1992, p. 383.|width =35%| align =right
- ^ Peter Elphick, 2001, "Cover-ups and the Singapore Traitor Affair" Access date: 5 March 2007.
- ^ Thompson, p. 476.
- ^ Thompson, p. 477.
- ^ Thompson, p. 476–478.
- ^ Thompson, p. 477–478.
- ^ Thompson, p. 478.
- ^ Alexandra Massacre. [7 December 2005]. (原始内容存档于18 October 2005).
- ^ Daily Express, 14 August 2008
- ^ George Britton, personal recollection 2009
- ^ Hugo Hughes' war diary, written in Changi
- ^ Nicholas Rowe, Alistair Irwin. Generals At War. 60 记录于. 21 September 2009. National Geographic Channel.
|city=
被忽略 (帮助); 缺少或|title=
为空 (帮助) - ^ Lieutenant General Henry Gordon Bennett, CB, CMG, DSO an Australian War Memorial article
- ^ John Toland, The Rising Sun: The Decline and Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936–1945 p 277 Random House New York 1970
- ^ 35.0 35.1 Stanley, Peter. "Great in adversity": Indian prisoners of war in New Guinea. Australian War Memorial. [15 February 2008].
參考
- Cull, Brian. Hurricanes Over Singapore: RAF, RNZAF and NEI Fighters in Action Against the Japanese Over the Island and the Netherlands East Indies, 1942. Grub Street Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-1904010807.
- Cull, Brian. Buffaloes over Singapore: RAF, RAAF, RNZAF and Dutch Brewster Fighters in Action Over Malaya and the East Indies 1941–1942. Grub Street Publishing. 2008. ISBN 978-1904010326.
- Dixon, Norman F. On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, London, 1976
- Bose, Romen. SECRETS OF THE BATTLEBOX: The History and Role of Britain's Command HQ during the Malayan Campaign, Marshall Cavendish, Singapore 2005
- Bose, Romen. KRANJI:The Commonwealth War Cemetery and the Politics of the Dead, Singapore: Marshall Cavendish (2006)
- Elphick, Peter, Singapore, the pregnable fortress, Hodder & Stoughton, London, 1995, ISBN 0-340-64990-9
- Kelly, Terence. Hurricanes Versus Zeros: Air Battles over Singapore, Sumatra and Java. Pen and Sword. 2008. ISBN 978-1844156221.
- Kinvig, Clifford. Scapegoat: General Percival of Singapore, London (1996) ISBN 0241105838
- Leasor, James. Singapore: The Battle That Changed The World UK, USA 1968, 2011. ISBN 978-1-908291-18-9
- Smyth, John George. Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore, MacDonald and Company, 1971, ASIN B0006CDC1Q
- Thompson, Peter. The Battle for Singapore, London (2005) ISBN 0749950684 HB
- Seki, Eiji. Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. London: Global Oriental (2006) ISBN 1905246285; (cloth) [reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 2007 – previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New Interpretation.]
- Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. Bloody Shambles: The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942, London: Grub Street (2007)
- Shores, Christopher F; Cull, Brian; Izawa, Yasuho. Bloody Shambles, The First Comprehensive Account of the Air Operations over South-East Asia December 1941 – April 1942 Volume One: Drift to War to the Fall of Singapore. London: Grub Street Press. (1992) ISBN 094881750X
- Smith, Colin. Singapore Burning: Heroism and Surrender in World War II Penguin (2005) ISBN 0670913413
- Smyth, John George Smyth, Percival and the Tragedy of Singapore, MacDonald and Company, 1971
- Thompson, P. The Battle for Singapore, The True Story of the Greatest Catastrophe of World War II, London (2005) ISBN 0749950994
外部連結
- National Heritage Board, Battlefield Singapore
- Bicycle Blitzkrieg – The Japanese Conquest of Malaya and Singapore 1941–1942
- Royal Engineers Museum Royal Engineers and the Second World War – the Far East
- The diary of one British POW, Frederick George Pye of the Royal Engineers. Fred Pye was a POW for 3½ years, including time spent building the Burma Railway. He managed to save, write on and bury scraps of paper, and after the war compiled them into a readable form.
- Animated History of the Fall of Malaya and Singapore