User:Dkzzl/君士坦丁堡之围 (674年-678年)

抄本第293张反面、294张正面与294张反面,包含自约翰二世·科穆宁君士坦丁十一世·巴列奥略的皇帝肖像,君士坦丁十一世之后的最后一个肖像描绘的是君士坦丁大帝

摩德纳希腊文122号手抄本(拉丁语:Codex Mutinensis graecus 122,简称Mutinensis gr. 122)[1][註 1],是一份写于15世纪的希腊文抄本,现藏于意大利摩德纳埃斯特图书馆。“摩德纳希腊文122号”是现代分配的编号,抄本本身的标题是“历史摘录”(希臘語Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν[3],其主要内容取自12世纪拜占庭史家约翰·佐纳拉斯的《历史摘录》。

除了约翰·佐纳拉斯的作品内容(自罗马帝国建立到12世纪初阿莱克修斯一世皇帝去世的编年史[註 2])外,这份抄本还包含一个原创的序言和部分原创内容,将其覆盖的历史范围扩展到1453年君士坦丁堡陷落;此外还有几种简短的列表与描述,如宫廷官员、教会官员、皇陵的清单。这份抄本初次制作于约1425年,原本是约翰·佐纳拉斯作品的抄本,之后又于1453年之后的某个时候由另一位抄书人加上了新的内容。这位抄书员很可能是被君士坦丁堡的陷落震动,以扩展这份抄本的方法来保存对逝去的古老帝国的记忆。

这份抄本最大的特点是包含大量罗马-拜占庭皇帝的微型肖像英语Portrait miniature,自公元前27年受封奥古斯都屋大维至1453年战死的君士坦丁十一世,几乎每一位罗马皇帝的肖像都出现在这份抄本中,现存的抄本中只有这份包含这种内容。早期罗马皇帝的肖像可能全出于想象绘制,但7世纪之后的皇帝肖像更加可信(尽管比不上近代的自然主义艺术),并与描绘皇帝外貌的其他史料比较吻合,可能是基于保存下来的当时绘制的肖像或当时的文字描述、硬币上的肖像。一些皇帝,如米海尔九世(1294-1320年在位的共治皇帝)、安德洛尼卡四世(1376-1379年在位)等人的肖像仅见于这份抄本。在约翰·佐纳拉斯作品涵盖的时段,各个皇帝的肖像位于抄本边缘,出现在文本第一次提到他掌权的地方,起到标志皇权变换的作用。佐纳拉斯作品所没有提到的阿莱克修斯一世之后的皇帝的肖像则按顺序集中绘制于靠近抄本末尾的几页中。

内容与组成

抄本的部分页面(第59张反面、第74张正面、第184张反面、第270张正面),分别包含戈尔迪安一世戈尔迪安二世君士坦丁大帝巴西尔一世罗曼努斯四世·第欧根尼的肖像。自奥古斯都阿莱克修斯一世·科穆宁的皇帝肖像附在文本旁边

这份抄本创作于15世纪,共有295张纸,每张长25厘米,宽16厘米[4]。抄本的主要内容抄自12世纪拜占庭帝国官方史家约翰·佐纳拉斯的作品《历史摘录》(希臘語Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν),一份自上帝创世开始,到1118年约翰二世·科穆宁继位为止的世界编年史,主要关注罗马帝国及拜占庭帝国历史[5]。但这份抄本略去了佐纳拉斯作品的开头部分,以第十卷中克里奥帕特拉的故事为开始,从第6张正面到第285张,都是抄录佐纳拉斯的作品[4][註 3]

这份抄本最大的特点是其中贯穿全书的肖像[5]。其第6张至第285张包含自公元前27年受封奥古斯都屋大维阿莱克修斯一世·科穆宁的几乎每一位罗马皇帝的肖像[4],自约翰二世·科穆宁至1453年战死的君士坦丁十一世的皇帝肖像则集中绘制于抄本末尾[5]。现存的抄本中只有这份包含如此全面的拜占庭皇帝肖像[6]。一些皇帝,如米海尔九世(1294-1320年在位的共治皇帝)、安德洛尼卡四世(1376-1379年在位)等人的肖像仅见于这份抄本[7]。。在约翰·佐纳拉斯作品涵盖的时段,各个皇帝(直到阿莱克修斯一世)的肖像位于抄本边缘,出现在文本第一次提到他掌权的地方,起到标志皇权变换的作用[4]

抄本中后期的皇帝(拜占庭皇帝)的肖像都是正脸朝前,十分标准化,而罗马时期的皇帝肖像则姿势多样,脸的朝向也各不相同[8]。这种不同可能源于抄写员在不同历史时期所依靠的原始资料不同。[9]而后期皇帝正面朝前、表情严肃的形象可能反映了帝国官方的皇帝形象[6]

在抄录佐纳拉斯的史书之前,抄写者加入了一篇简短的序言,位于抄本的第2张正面-第5张正面,概述了自世界创始(遵循《圣经·创世记》的说法)到君士坦丁堡陷落的历史,题为“起初,神创造天地君士坦丁·巴列奥略[4]。佐纳拉斯的史书内容结束之后,抄本中出现了几张空白页,至289张开始则有几种列表[4],依次是拜占庭宫廷机构表(第289张反面)、自梅特罗法内斯英语Metrophanes of Byzantium(306-314年在位)至格里高利三世(1443-1451年在位)的君士坦丁堡普世牧首表(第290张反面-第291张正面)、按等级排列的普世牧首区都主教区列表(第290张正面-第291张正面)、皇帝陵墓列表(第291张正面-第292张正面)、自君士坦丁大帝开始的皇帝列表(第292张反面-第293张反面) ,之后是一组皇帝群像。整个抄本以第295张对矗立于奥古斯塔广场查士丁尼一世骑马像的描述告终[4]

在抄本接近结尾处的皇帝群像中,君士坦丁大帝的肖像紧随君士坦丁十一世的肖像再次出现[10](这也是君士坦丁大帝的肖像第三次在抄本中出现,前两次是在第74张正面与反面[11])。重复的君士坦丁大帝肖像似乎给予读者一种预言性、启示录般的信息,这可能是追随君士坦丁堡沦陷后第一位普世牧首——根纳季乌斯二世的观点,后者认为,君士坦丁堡的第一位与最后一位皇帝名字都叫君士坦丁的事实意味着,世界末日就快要到来了;肖像重复至少也表明了一种信念,即皇帝世系的开始与结束不可磨灭地联系在了一起[10]

历史

创作

傳統觀點假設這份抄本由兩位抄寫員創作[5][註 4],這一抄本一開始只是佐納拉斯作品的簡單抄寫(約完成于1425年)[13]。並沒有直接的證據能證明這一估計年份,但可以合理地這樣假設,因為第一位抄寫員創作的最後一幅肖像可能是曼努埃爾二世(1391-1425年在位)的老年肖像[14]。第一位抄寫員抄錄了佐納拉斯的作品,但並沒有抄完整,之後的第二位抄寫員補上了作品的結尾,並把抄本內容擴展到第285張(第一次抄寫止於第263張正面)[4]。第二位抄寫員所用的紙的質地與之前的不同,並且其上還有兩把剪刀形狀的水印,可以將其添加的內容與之前的區分開來[5]

第二位抄寫員進行創作的時間應在15世紀後半葉,1453年君士坦丁堡淪陷後的某一年[4][5][14],抄本的序言應該是他撰寫的(其中一個旁註提到“城市被攻陷”,證明了這一點)[4],12世紀後的歷史內容[4][5]、各個列表以及描述查士丁尼一世雕像的內容也是由他創作、補充的[15]

或許君士坦丁堡的陷落是第二位抄寫員保養、擴展這一作品的原因,他想藉此保留對失落帝國的記憶[6]。他一定觉得完成皇帝的列表与记录很重要,除了绘制最后几位皇帝的肖像之外,他还修复并修改了前面的肖像[15]。因为抄本中的某些肖像,如克劳狄(41-54年在位) 的肖像没有上色,其余的肖像则用水彩上色,这表明抄本的早期版本中的肖像很可能并未上色,这一工作由第二位抄写者完成;他还重写了褪色的注释,并在一些肖像下面写了红色的文字[16]。It is clear that the later scribe rearranged parts of the codex. The early and final parts of the earlier scribe's work appear to have been in poor condition, apparently damaged by fire, before the second scribe took to restoring and adding to the codex. The later scribe thus kept the main body of the older codex, restoring some parts (such as the faded portraits), restored some of the lost text and added new text of his own.[17] One of the key pieces of evidence that the codex was not only restored but also rearranged is that some of the portraits presented in the later sections of the work, such as those of emperors Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and John IV Laskaris (r. 1258–1261), appear to have been cut out of earlier portions of the text and pasted in later parts.[16]

收藏与研究史

 
阿爾貝托三世·皮奧英语Alberto III Pio, Prince of Carpi (1475–1531),曾收藏这本抄本

這份抄本的早期收藏史並不清楚,其中一位收藏著名叫“阿爾塞尼烏斯(Arsenius)”,可能就是曾于1506-1509年任莫奈姆瓦夏主教的阿爾森尼烏斯·阿波斯托利烏斯英语Arsenius Apostolius,威尼斯學者喬治·瓦拉英语Giorgio Valla(1447-1500年在世)也曾擁有此抄本[18],此後該本由具有文藝復興精神的卡爾皮領主阿爾貝托三世·皮奧英语Alberto III Pio, Prince of Carpi(1475-1531年在世)收藏[4]。1573年,摩德納埃斯特圖書館購得此本,此後該本就一直在這裡保存[4][12]。成為其收藏的250多份希臘-拜占庭手抄本之一[19]。如今這份抄本的扉頁已經遺失,在其第一頁上有瓦拉與皮奧的簽名,並附有拉丁語標識“iste liber est mei(這本書是我的)”[18]

1892年,德國學者卡爾·庫倫巴赫英语Karl Krumbacher對這份抄本進行了第一次現代研究,但錯誤地認為其主要部分是14世紀的作品,但也認為後面的添加是15世紀做的。希臘學者斯皮里宗·蘭布羅斯英语Spyridon Lambros在1903年瀏覽了這一抄本,其中的皇帝肖像給了他很深的印象,于是他在1905年在雅典舉辦的國際考古學大會上熱情洋溢地展示了它。這是已知唯一一份如此完整地描繪了皇帝形象的抄本,填補了拜占庭研究者的一大知識空白[20]

1930年蘭布羅斯出版《拜占庭皇帝肖像集》(Λεύκωμα Βυζαντινῶν Αὐτοκρατόρων)一書,此書包含所有拜占庭皇帝的肖像,基本來源於這一手抄本,此後,這一手抄本逐漸在拜占庭研究者中聞名[21]。1976年約安尼斯·斯帕薩拉基斯(Ioannis Spatharakis)出版的《拜占庭裝飾手抄本中的肖像》(The Portrait in Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts)第一次深入研究了這些肖像,同時也研究了其他拜占庭手抄本肖像[13]。大多數現代研究主要關注這一抄本的肖像,很少對其文字內容感興趣[22]。對拜占庭皇帝肖像的關注也遠多於對早期羅馬皇帝肖像的關注[8],因為後者似乎完全是憑想象繪製的[8][23]

自20世纪初开始,这些皇帝肖像开始被出版并流传于世,在拜占庭皇帝形象构建方面较有影响。1982年,塞浦路斯发行了纪念皇帝尼基弗鲁斯二世·福卡斯(963-969年在位)解放该岛1017年的邮票,其上的尼基弗鲁斯二世肖像就是根据该抄本中的肖像修改而成[24]

皇帝肖像分析

该抄本中的安德洛尼卡二世·巴列奥略(左)与13世纪乔治·帕希梅莱斯英语George Pachymeres《历史》抄本中的同一皇帝(右),可以看到两者都描绘了皇帝的方形胡须。该抄本皇帝肖像与他处获知形象的相似表明,抄写员尽力在忠实地表现皇帝们的形象

这本抄本中的皇帝肖像算不上是自然主义[25],而且各肖像之间往往非常相像[13],但也有胡须的有无、胡须的形状、眉毛与鼻子的形状等显著特征得到表现,表明肖像创作者也在尽力忠实地表现皇帝的形象[25]

许多种形态各异的胡子和一些皇帝的其他明显特征并不是为了避免重复而画出的,而更像是源于其他抄本或文本来源[26],以及钱币上的形象[27]。尽管过去一般认为大多数肖像纯属想象作品(尤其是那些早期的皇帝)[5],现代观点则认为这些肖像可能是抄写者基于当时存在的资料创作的[1]。这些肖像是否应该被视为准确的形象描绘仍存在争议,它们与其他更古老的抄本中的肖像能较好地匹配[5],但彼此之间经常有少数特征截然不同[13]

晚期皇帝的肖像

The portraits of the Palaiologan dynasty (the final imperial dynasty, ruling from the 13th to 15th centuries) emperors in the codex accord well with portraits in other sources. In Mutinensis gr. 122, Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259–1282) is depicted as having a long beard, possibly worn in a net, which is also depicted in other sources for the emperor's appearance, such as a chrysobull in the Vatican Archives and another Medieval manuscript, Monac gr. 442. Michael VIII's son and successor, Andronikos II Palaiologos (r. 1282–1328) is depicted with a wide and square-shaped beard in the codex, a depiction also collaborated by how he is portrayed in chrysobulls and other manuscripts. John VI Kantakouzenos (r. 1347–1354) is also depicted in several portraits in another manuscript, Par. gr. 1242, wherein all portraits show him with a long beard split into two, as in the Mutinensis gr. 122. The portrait of John V Palaiologos (r. 1341–1376, 1379–1390, 1390–1391), showing him as possessing a beard ending in two points, is similar to how the emperor is depicted in the chrysobull of his confession of the Roman Catholic faith (from 1369) and to how he once was depicted on a mosaic in the Hagia Sophia. There are no significant differences between how John VII Palaiologos (r. 1390) is depicted in the Mutinensis gr. 122 and how he is depicted in the only other known portrait of the emperor, in the manuscript Par. gr. 1783. The portraits of Manuel II Palaiologos (r. 1391–1425) and John VIII Palaiologos (r. 1425–1448) are very similar to portraits in other sources, Manuel always being depicted with a white beard ending in two points and with a long, straight nose and John always possessing a similar beard and an obliquely set nose. The portrait of the final emperor, Constantine XI, is similar to how he is depicted on contemporary seals. The lack of known portraits outside the codex of emperors Michael IX Palaiologos and Andronikos IV Palaiologos and Mutinensis gr. 122's depiction of Andronikos III Palaiologos (r. 1328–1341) being damaged means that their portraits can't be compared to depictions in other sources.[7]

 
Portraits of Alexios IV Angelos, Alexios V Doukas and Theodore I Laskaris in Mutinensis gr. 122

Comparative material is somewhat lacking for the Angelid (1185–1204) and Laskarid (1204–1261) dynasties. The Laskarid emperors (with the exception of John IV, who was a child) are all depicted as having peculiar beards with curled ends. On coins, their beards end in two short points, possibly an attempt at depicting something similar, and in another manuscript, Monac. gr. 442, Theodore II Laskaris (r. 1254–1258) is depicted with the same type of beard.[28] Both Isaac II Angelos (r. 1185–1195, 1203–1204) and Alexios III Angelos (r. 1195–1203) are portrayed on their coins as having pointed beards, reflected in the codex's depiction of Isaac II, but the codex depicts Alexios III with a beard cut short. Alexios V Doukas (r. 1204), nicknamed Murtzuphlos in his lifetime due to his bushy eyebrows, is depicted with this signature feature in the Mutinensis gr. 122.[29]

As for the Palaiologoi emperors, there are several independently created portraits of the emperors of the Komnenian dynasty (1081–1185). The portraits of these emperors in Mutinensis gr. 122 generally accord well with other known portraits. Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081–1118) is depicted with a square-shaped beard in the codex, a feature shared with depictions of the emperor in another manuscript, Vat. gr. 666. Alexios I's successor John II Komnenos is represented in the codex with a rounded beard, a feature also reflected in other sources such as a mosaic in the Hagia Sophia and a depiction in the manuscript Vat. Urb. gr. 2. The third Komnenos emperor, Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180), is depicted with a short beard in his coinage and in the manuscript Vat. gr. 1176, a feature shared by his portrait in the Mutinensis gr. 122. Manuel's heir, the child emperor Alexios II Komnenos (r. 1180–1183) is depicted without a beard and Alexios II's successor, his uncle and the adventurer Andronikos I Komnenos (r. 1183–1185) is depicted as an old man with a long, white beard ending in two points, similar to how he is depicted in his own coins. The shape of the Byzantine imperial crown was changed in the 12th century, gaining a semi-spherical top, which is reflected in portraits of emperors in the codex from John II onwards.[29]

可靠性

该抄本中巴西尔二世的肖像(左),一份11世纪抄本中同一皇帝的肖像(中),硬币上的肖像(右图,左边的人物)。巴西尔二世是少数几个在该抄本的肖像与其他现存形象明显不太一致的皇帝之一

因为抄本制作于15世纪,后期诸王朝的皇帝肖像显然会比早期诸帝的肖像更可能可靠[25]。自7世纪之后,该抄本中的肖像与其他来源的皇帝肖像高估相似,希拉克略(610-641年在位)之后,只有少数几幅肖像与其他来源的皇帝形象间存在较大差异[23]。而希拉克略之前的皇帝肖像很大程度上,甚至可以说纯凭想象绘制[23]。例如,君士坦丁大帝时代留下来的皇帝形象没有胡须,但抄本中的君士坦丁大帝却留着小胡子[28]。 Different garments and crowns are applied to different early emperors, but the designs are all imaginary and do not match known ancient Roman imperial regalia.[8]

Two prominent examples of post-Heraclius portraits that appear to be erroneous are those of Theophilos (r. 829–842) and Basil II (r. 976–1025).[23][13] The portrait of Basil II is entirely unlike portraits of the emperor in other sources, and the portrait of Theophilos is equally dissimilar from his portraits on contemporary coins, though in Theophilos' case the coins were highly schematized and produced during the Iconoclastic period and probably carry little relevance in terms of being accurate likenesses. The portrait of Heraclius in the codex is similar to portraits of the emperor on a rare set of early coins, but dissimilar from portraits from the last 30 or so years of his reign. The portraits of emperors Constantine VII (r. 913–959), Romanos I (r. 920–944), Romanos II (r. 959–963) and Nikephoros II do not match the highly standardized portraits on the coinage of these emperors, though perhaps other sources were used for these portraits.[13] The portrait of Romanos IV Diogenes (r. 1068–1071) is similar to the portraits on the coinage of Romanos III Argyros (r. 1028–1034).[30] There are also examples of portraits of earlier emperors that match other depictions very well. For instance, the portrait of Michael V Kalaphates (r. 1041–1042) closely matches the depiction on his coins, with the same head/face shape, beard and mustache.[31]

史学分析

“紫衣贵族”佐伊女皇(左)与她的丈夫君士坦丁九世“单独战斗者”(右)在抄本中的肖像

2001年,彼特·古兰(Petre Guran)认为约翰六世·坎塔库泽努斯的肖像值得注意。因为约翰六世虽确实于1347-1354年称帝掌权,但他的统治标志着巴列奥略王朝的短暂中断(最后一组肖像是在约翰六世失位、巴列奥略王朝皇帝恢复统治几代后创作的),而且他后来被废黜,退居修道院,以修士而非皇帝的身份结束了自己的政治生涯[32],尽管如此,他的肖像仍带有与其他皇帝相同的光圈

Barbara Hill, Liz James and Dion Smythe erroneously claimed in 1994 that the codex only includes portraits of male rulers, omitting portraits of the ruling empresses Irene, Theodora and Zoë. Hill, James and Dion believed that this exclusion of the ruling empresses may perhaps be attributable to the scribes behind the codex viewing 'imperial' as exclusively pertaining to men.[33] Contrary to the claim in their study, Mutinensis gr. 122 does contain portraits of Zoë and Theodora (though Irene does not have a portrait).[34] Excluding Zoë and Theodora would have been strange, since numerous other Byzantine writings and artworks show them as being on the same level as the male emperors. Notably, the Madrid Skylitzes depicts Zoë's marriages to emperors (her co-rulers) Romanos III, Michael IV and Constantine IX, in each case appearing to note Zoë as being ahead of her consorts in power and prestige.[35] A notable detail of the portraits of the empresses in Mutinensis gr. 122 is that they are depicted with radiate crowns, different in design from those of the male rulers. Though the crowns of Byzantine empresses are not described in any known surviving literary source, other surviving Byzantine depictions of empresses also depict crowns of female rulers and consorts in this way, confirming the designs to be accurate.[36]

精选肖像

注释

  1. ^ 这份抄本有时也被称为“codex Mutinensis A. S. 5.5”,之前曾被称为“codex Mutinensis III D, S 14”[2]
  2. ^ 佐纳拉斯的作品原本是自上帝创造天地开始的世界编年史,这份抄本省略了作品的开头,直接从克里奥帕特拉统治时期的记载开始[4]
  3. ^ 这里的“张”指的是两页纸,从左到右,一张纸的右面为正面,左面为反面。
  4. ^ An alternative interpretation of the creation of the codex, challenging the traditional view of two scribes, was forwarded by Olga Gratziou in 1997. She claimed that the codex was not illustrated at all originally, and that all the portraits contained within it, including both the portraits in the margins of the text and the portraits at the end, regardless of the different methods used to add them to the manuscript, were done by the same hand. Gratziou theorized that given that all portraits must then have postdated the Fall of Constantinople, and might have been created gradually by the first "post-Byzantine" owner of the book, who repaired the work and added brief historical records to update it to reflect events since original manuscript's end. Gratziou further claimed that later owners of the book then continued in a similar manner, adding notes at different points, retouching portraits and repairing damages, with the manuscript ending up being used as something akin to a "historical notebook".[12]

引用

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 Treadgold 1979,第1248頁.
  2. ^ Burke 2014,第18頁.
  3. ^ Ἐπιτομὴ Ἱστοριῶν.
  4. ^ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 Tsamakda 2017,第133頁.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Spatharakis 1976,第172頁.
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Tsamakda 2017,第134頁.
  7. ^ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Spatharakis 1976,第176–179頁.
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 Gratziou 1997,第46頁.
  9. ^ Gratziou 1997,第48頁.
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Mattiello & Rossi 2019.
  11. ^ Gratziou 1997,第45頁.
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 Gratziou 1997,第62頁.
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 Breckenridge 1978,第362頁.
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 Spatharakis 1976,第175–176頁.
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Spatharakis 1976,第173頁.
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Spatharakis 1976,第174頁.
  17. ^ Spatharakis 1976,第175頁.
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 Allen 1890,第18頁.
  19. ^ Allen 1890,第4頁.
  20. ^ Gratziou 1997,第39頁.
  21. ^ Gratziou 1997,第40頁.
  22. ^ Gratziou 1997,第41頁.
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 Spatharakis 1976,第182頁.
  24. ^ Burke 2014,第16頁.
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Spatharakis 1976,第176頁.
  26. ^ Spatharakis 1976,第183頁.
  27. ^ Anderson 2021,第141頁.
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Spatharakis 1976,第179頁.
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 Spatharakis 1976,第180頁.
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 Wroth 1908,第xcvii頁.
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 Wroth 1908,第liv, xcvi頁.
  32. ^ Guran 2001,第95–96頁.
  33. ^ Hill, James & Smythe 1994,第215頁.
  34. ^ Wroth 1908,第liv頁.
  35. ^ Hill, James & Smythe 1994,第218–222頁.
  36. ^ Bárányné Oberschall 1937,第84–85頁.

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