User:ItMarki/美式标音系统

美式标音系统
类型	全音素文字
使用时期	1880年代至今
语言	用于任何语言的語音轉錄
相关书写体系
父体系	拉丁语字母，以希腊字母扩充 美式标音系统

美式标音系统（英語：Americanist phonetic notation）是一个語音轉錄系统，最初由欧洲和美国的人类学家和语言科学家（其中大部分都是新語法學派分子）研发，目的是对美洲原住民語言和欧洲语言作语音和音位转写。到现在，研究斯拉夫语族、乌拉尔语系、闪米特语族、高加索诸语言、印度语言或非洲语言的语言学家仍是经常使用该系统。然而，研究乌拉尔语系的语言学家更常使用一个变体，称为烏拉爾音標。

和国际音标（IPA）相比，美式标音系统更常用附加符号。IPA追求使用最少量的附加符号辨别最多的语音，而它只在齿-龈区别中使用这些符号。美式标音系统依赖附加符号以辨别所转录的语言中的许多音素区别。另一方面，美式标音系统会使用单字母表达舌冠塞擦音，而IPA则需要二合字母。在其他方面，美式标音系统变得越来越像IPA，弃用了许多较为晦涩的字母。

与IPA的区别

美式标音系统的某些符号最初与国际音标中的一模一样，但现已成为弃用国际音标符号比如，⟨ι⟩。随着时间推移，美式标音系统与IPA越来越相似。愛德華·薩丕爾早期和后期作品的差别便能体现这一点。然而，两者系统依然由显著区别，包括：

• ⟨y⟩代表[j]、⟨ñ⟩代表[ɲ]、⟨c⟩或⟨¢⟩代表[t͡s]、⟨ƛ⟩代表[t͡ɬ]、⟨ł⟩代表[ɬ]
• 硬腭齒齦音⟨č ǰ š ž⟩，有时还有齦硬腭音⟨ć ś ź ń⟩
• 齿音和硬腭音（不包括齿無噝擦音⟨θ ð⟩）的前移符号（反短音符），以及卷舌音和小舌音（不包括小舌音⟨q⟩）的后移符号（圆点）
• ⟨r⟩或⟨ř⟩表示闪音，⟨r̃⟩表示颤音
• 反尾形符表示鼻音化
• 元音上的圆点表示央化，两点（分音符）表示前移（适用于前圆唇元音和后不圆唇元音）
• 元音上的尖音符和重音符表示重音

历史

约翰·威斯利·鲍威尔在有关美国语族的出版物中使用一套早期符号，但这些符号都来自其他语音学家和美国作家的作品。人类学家法蘭茲·鮑亞士使用了另一套稍微不同的符号。1916年，美国人类学协会的一份出版物大大扩展了鮑亞士的字母系统。布卢姆菲尔德及博林（1927年）和赫尔佐克等人（1934年）的文章讨论并修改这个字母系统。美式标音系统有时出现于《美国人类学家》《国际美国语言学期刊》和《语言》这些期刊中。

阿伯克龙比（1991:44-45）就美式标音系统作出以下论述：

美国的标音系统历史值得深入讨论。伦纳德·布龙菲尔德在早期书籍《语言学简介》（An Introduction to the Study of Language，1914年）和更著名的《语言》（Language，1935年）的英国版中使用了IPA。但自此以后，许多美国语言学家都异常抗拒IPA，尤其是对某些符号。

1952年，查尔斯·沃格林在纽约的人类学研讨会中讲了一件有趣的事情。他说，在1930年代初，一位“亲切的丹麦人”教他语音学，让他使用“ship”中“sh”音的IPA符号，等等。一会儿后，他在某篇关于一个美国原住民语言的作品中使用了这些符号，准备给愛德華·薩丕爾看。薩丕爾看了这篇作品时直接“火冒三丈”，要求沃格林以后用“š”（s wedge），而不是那个IPA符号。

我坚信那位“亲切的丹麦人”其实是汉斯·J·乌尔达尔。他是丹尼尔·琼斯最出色的学徒之一，之后和路易·叶尔姆斯列夫创始了言理學。乌尔达尔深入研究了加利福尼亚州的语言，特别是东北迈杜语和南方迈杜语（邁杜語的分支）。他所写的大多数文章都没有在他生前发布。讽刺的是，这些作品在乌尔达尔死后被加州大学出版社出版时，编辑引言说它们“的拼写法都经过了重写”：乌尔达尔所用的IPA符号都被移除或替换成其他符号。

奇怪的是，IPA符号对于美国标音系统符号有明显优势，比如“长s”和“s wedge”。琼斯指出为求易读性，语音学家都应尽量避免使用附加符号。许多美国语言学家的作品乍看都像是充斥了附加符号。

有人可能想知道为什么美国语言学家都这么排斥IPA。我想为这个似乎不理智的态度提供一个理由。寻根究底，这个憎恨来自大多数美国大学都有的语言部门，而英国大学是没有的。语言部门一般有权有势、有钱有人。就语言学和语音学而言，他们以规范语言学著称，有些人则觉得他们则不太有学问。他们在出版物和期刊中会用IPA标记读音。我相信美国语言学部门成员最不想遇到的一件事是被误认为是语言部门的成员，但如果他在作品中使用IPA，则必定会招致这个怀疑。

字母

辅音

美式标音系统没有一个中心机构。 西方濒危语言文献研究所（WIELD）推荐以下用法：

前移是⟨C̯⟩，后移是⟨C̣⟩。辅音延长是⟨C꞉⟩或⟨CC⟩。声门音化的例子包括⟨č̓⟩或⟨m̓⟩（挤喉音与声门化的其他类型归为同一类）。腭音化是⟨Cʸ⟩。唇音化、软腭化、送气、清音和前鼻化与IPA的相同。咽音、会厌音和声门音，以及内爆音和搭嘴音与IPA的相同 。。

WIELD建议的美式标音系统辅音

			双唇音	唇齒音	齿音	齿龈音	捲舌音	齒齦後音	龈腭音	硬腭音	软腭音	小舌音	咽音	聲門音
塞音		清	p		t̯	t	ṭ			k̯	k	q		ʔ
		浊	b		d̯	d	ḍ			ɡ̯	ɡ	ɡ̇
塞擦音	中央音	清		pf	tθ	c	c̣	č	ć		kx	qx̣
					c̯
		浊			dð	dz	dẓ	ǰ	dź
					dz̯
	边音	清				ƛ
		浊				λ
擦音	中央音	清	ɸ	f	θ	s	ṣ	š	ś	x̯	x	x̣	ħ	h
					s̯
		浊	β	v	ð	z	ẓ	ž	ź	ɣ̯	ɣ	ɣ̇	ʕ	ɦ
					z̯
	边音	清				ł				łʸ
		浊				ɮ
鼻音			m		n̯	n	ṇ		ń	ñ	ŋ	ŋ̇
颤音						r̃						ʀ
弹音					r̯	r	ṛ
近音		中央音		ʋ		ɹ	ɹ̣			y	ẉ
		唇音化								ẅ	w
		边音			l̯	l	ḷ			lʸ

美式标音系统与IPA的区别可分为几大类：使用附加符号分别从齿龈音和软腭音得出其他舌冠音和舌背音；将c j λ ƛ用作塞擦音；将y用作辅音；以及将r用作弹音。

注意：

• 在齿擦音中，⟨θ ð⟩是无咝擦音，而⟨s̯ z̯⟩是有咝擦音。

Rhotics table

Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic). As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the ⟨r⟩ character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

Common rhotic conventions

	Alveolar	Retroflex/Uvular
Approximant	r	ṛ
Flap	ř	ṛ̌
Tap	ᴅ	ᴅ̇
Trill	r̃	ṛ̃

Other flaps are ⟨ň⟩, ⟨l͏̌⟩, etc.

Common alternate symbols

There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

• ⟨¢⟩ may be used for ⟨c⟩.
• ⟨č̣⟩ may be used for ⟨c̣⟩.
• ⟨j⟩ may be used for ⟨ʒ⟩.
• ⟨ǰ⟩ may be used for ⟨ǯ⟩.
• ⟨ƚ⟩ may be used for ⟨ł⟩.
• ⟨ɸ⟩ may be used for ⟨φ⟩.
• ⟨G⟩ may be used for ⟨ġ⟩.
• ⟨X⟩ may be used for ⟨x̣⟩.
• ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑).
• Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. ⟨ᵍɓ⟩, ⟨t̓ᶿ⟩.
• There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex ⟨č̣ ṣ̌ ẓ̌⟩ and apical retroflex ⟨c̣ ṣ ẓ⟩ in some transcriptions.
• The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental ⟨ṱ⟩ and palatal ⟨k̭⟩.
• Many researchers use the x-caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.
• The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows. There was, however, little standardization of rhotics, and ⟨ṛ⟩ may be either retroflex or uvular, though as noted above ⟨ṛ⟩ or ⟨ṛ̌⟩ may be a retroflex flap vs ⟨ṛ̃⟩ as a uvular trill. Apart from the ambiguity of the rhotics below, and minor graphic variants (ȼ g γ for c ɡ ɣ and the placement of the diacritic in g̑ γ̑), this is compatible with the WIELD recommendations. Only precomposed affricates are shown below; others may be indicated by digraphs (e.g. ⟨dz⟩).

Typical NAPA consonant values (not prescriptive)

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palato- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Stop (oral)	voiceless	p			t̯	t	ṭ		k̯	k	q		ʔ
	voiced	b			d̯	d	ḍ		g̑	g	ġ
Affricate	voiceless					ȼ		č
	voiced							ǰ
Lateral affricate	voiceless					ƛ
	voiced					λ
Fricative	voiceless	ɸ	f	θ	s̯	s	ṣ	š	x̯	x	x̣	ħ	h
	voiced	β	v	ð	z̯	z	ẓ	ž	γ̑	γ	γ̇	ʕ	ɦ
Lateral fricative	voiceless					ł
Nasal		m	ṃ			n	ṇ		ñ	ŋ	ŋ̇
Rhotic						r	ṛ				ṛ
Lateral						l	ḷ
Glide		(w)							y	(w)

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA, apart from the ejective apostrophe being placed above the base letter.

Pike

Pike (1947) provides the following set of symbols:

Pike (1947) consonant values

		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Alveolo- palatal	Palatal	Velar	Uvular	Pharyn- geal	Glottal
Stop (oral)	voiceless	p		t̯	t	ṭ		k̯	k	ḳ (q)	ḳ̣	ʔ
	voiced	b		d̯	d	ḍ		g̯	g	g̣ (G)
Affricate	voiceless	pᵽ		t̯θ	ts (ȼ)		tš (č)		kx
	voiced	bb̶		d̯ꟈ	dz (ʒ)		dž (ǰ)		gg̶
Lateral affricate	voiceless				tƚ (ƛ)
	voiced				dl (λ)
Flat fricative	voiceless	ᵽ	f	θ	θ̣			x̯	x	x̣	ḥ	h
	voiced	b̶	v	ꟈ	ꟈ̣			g̶̯	g̶	g̶̣		ɦ
Sibilant	voiceless	w̱̟ (W̟)			s	ṣ , ṣ̌	š
	voiced	w̟			z	ẓ , ẓ̌	ž
Lateral fricative	voiceless				ƚ̟
	voiced				l̟
Nasal	voiceless	m̱ (M)			ṉ (N)		ṉ̃ (Ñ)		ŋ̱ (Ŋ)
	voiced	m			n	ṇ	ñ		ŋ
Lateral	voiceless				ƚ (L)		ƚʸ
	voiced				l	ḷ	lʸ
Flap	voiceless				ṟ̌
	voiced				ř , l͏̌	ṛ̌
Trill	voiceless	p̃			ṟ̃
	voiced	b̃			r̃					ṛ̃

Voiceless, voiced and syllabic consonants may also be C̥, C̬ and C̩, as in IPA. Aspirated consonants are Cʻ or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ. Non-audible release is indicated with superscripting, Vꟲ.

Fortis is C͈ and lenis C᷂. Labialization is C̮ or Cʷ; palatalization is Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ; velarization is C⁽ᵘ⁾, and pharyngealization is C̴.

Other airstream mechanisms are pulmonic ingressive C^←, ejective Cˀ, implosive Cˁ, click C˂, and lingual ejective (spurt) C˃.

Anthropos

The journal Anthropos published the alphabet to be used in their articles in 1907. Although European, it is the same basic system that Sapir and Boas introduced to the United States. Transcription is italic, without other delimiters.

Anthropos alphabet (1907)

		Labial		Coronal ("Dental")			Palatal	Dorsal ("Guttural")			Pharyn- geal	Epi- glottal	Glottal
		Bilabial	Labio- dental	Inter- dental	Alveolar	Retroflex		Pre- velar	Velar	Uvular
Plosive	voiceless	p		t̯	t	ṭ	c	k̯	k	ḳ			ʼ
	voiced	b		d̯	d	ḍ	j	g̯	g	g̣		ꜣ
Affricate	voiceless	p̌ (pf)		t͏̯̌ (t̯s̯)	t͏̌ (ts)	ṭ̌ (ṭṣ)	č (tš)	ǩ̯ (k̯x̯)	ǩ (kx)	ḳ̌ (ḳx̣)
	voiced	b̌ (bv)		d͏̯̌ (d̯z̯)	d͏̌ (dz)	ḍ̌ (ḍẓ)	ǰ (dž)	ǧ̯ (g̯y)	ǧ (gÿ)	ǧ̣ (g̣ỵ̈)
Fricative	voiceless	ff (f̯)	f	s̯	s	ṣ	š	x̯	x	x̣	ḥ	h́	h
	voiced	w	v	z̯	z	ẓ	ž	y	ÿ	ỵ̈		ꜣ
Rhotic				r̯ ꭈ̯	r ꭈ	ṛ ꭈ̣		ꭉ̯ ꭊ̯	ꭉ ꭊ	ꭉ̣ ꭊ̣
Lateral flap					𝼑
Lateral liquid				l̯	l	ḷ	(ĺ)		ɫ
Lateral affricate	voiceless				t̪ (t̰)				k̪ (k̰)
	voiced				d̪ (d̰)				g̪ (g̰)
Lateral fricative	voiceless				s̪ (s̰)				x̪ (x̰)
	voiced				z̪ (z̰)				y̪ (y̰)
Nasal		m ꬺ (ṁ)		n̯	n	ṇ	(ń)	ꬻ̯	ꬻ (ṅ)	ꬻ̣
Prenasalized?	voiceless	p̰			t̰				k̰
	voiced	b̰			d̰				g̰
Ejective		p̓			t̕				k̓
Ingressive		p			ʇ	ʇ̣	ɔ		ʞ

Palatalized consonants are written with an acute – t́ d́ ć j́ ś ź ĺ ń etc. Semivowels are i̯ u̯ ü̯ o̯ e̯ etc.

Vowels

WIELD recommends the following conventions. It doesn't provide characters for distinctions that aren't attested in the literature:

WIELD recommendations for NAPA (semi)vowels

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y	ẅ			ẉ	w
Close	higher	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ɪ	ʊ̈	ᵻ	ʊ̇		ʊ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə	ȯ	ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ɛ̇	ɔ̇	ʌ	ɔ
Open	higher	æ	ɒ̈	æ̇		ɑ	ɒ
	lower	a		a

No distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels. Diphthongs are e.g. ⟨ai⟩ or ⟨ay⟩, depending on phonological analysis. Nasal vowels are e.g. ⟨ą⟩. Long vowels are e.g. ⟨a꞉⟩. A three-way length distinction may be ⟨a a꞉ a꞉꞉⟩ or ⟨a aꞏ a꞉⟩. Primary and secondary stress are e.g. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩. Voicelessness is e.g. ⟨ḁ⟩, as in the IPA. Creak, murmur, rhoticity et al. are as in the IPA.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows:

Typical NAPA vowel values (not prescriptive)

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y					w
High	(higher)	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᵾ	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ			ɔ
Low		æ		a/ɑ
Lower-Low		a		ɑ			ɒ

Pike

Pike (1947) presents the following:

Pike (1947) vowel values

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Glide		y					w
High	(higher)	i	ü	ɨ	ʉ	ï	u
	lower	ι	ᴜ̈			ϊ	ᴜ
Mid	higher	e	ö	ə		ë	o
	lower	ɛ	ɔ̈	ʌ			ɔ
Low		æ
Lower-Low		a		ɑ			ɒ

Nasalization is V̨ or Vⁿ. A long vowel is V꞉ or Vꞏ; half-long is V‧ (raised dot). Positional variants are fronted V˂, backed V˃, raised V˄ and lowered V˅.

Anthropos

Vowels are inconsistent between languages. ï ë etc. may be used for unrounded central vowels, and the ⟨a⟩-based letters are poorly defined, with height and rounding confounded.

Anthropos (semi)vowels

		Front		Central		Back
		unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
Semivowel		i̯	ü̯	ī̯	ū̯	ï̯	u̯
High	higher	i	ü	ī (ï)	ū	ï	u
	lower	i̠	ü̠	ī̠	ū̠	ï̠	u̠
Mid	higher	ẹ	ọ̈	ẹ̄	ọ̄	ẹ̈	ọ
	mid	e	ö	ē (ë)	ō	ë	o
	lower	e̠	ö̠	ē̠	ō̠	ë̠	o̠
Low	higher	a̤̣					a̰̣
	mid	a̤ ạ		ä		a̰ a̠
	lower			a

There are actually three heights of low front and back vowels. ā is also seen for a low back vowel.

Reduced (obscure) vowels are i̥ e̥ ḁ etc. There are also extra-high vowels ị ụ etc.

Bloch & Trager

Bloch & Trager (1942) proposed the following schema, which was never used. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are ⟨ɨ⟩, which already has a dot, and ⟨ᵻ⟩, which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Bloch & Trager vowel symbols

	Front		Central		Back
	unround	round	unround	round	unround	round
High	i	ü	ɨ	u̇	ï	u
Lower-high	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ̇	ɪ̈	ᴜ
Higher-mid	e	ö	ė	ȯ	ë	o
Mean-mid	ᴇ	ꭥ̈	ᴇ̇	ꭥ̇	ᴇ̈	ꭥ
Lower-mid	ɛ	ɔ̈	ɛ̇	ɔ̇	ɛ̈	ɔ
Higher-low	æ	ω̈	æ̇	ω̇	æ̈	ω
Low	a	ɒ̈	ȧ	ɒ̇	ä	ɒ

Kurath

Kurath (1939) is as follows. Enclosed in parentheses are rounded vowels. Apart from ⟨ʚ, ꭤ⟩ and some differences in alignment, it is essentially the IPA.

	Front	Half- front	Central	Half- back	Back
High	i (y)		ɨ (ʉ)		ɯ (u)
Lower high		ɪ (ʏ)	ᵻ (ᵾ)	ɤ (ᴜ)
Higher mid	e (ø)	ɘ			(o)
Mid			ə	(ɵ)
Lower mid	ɛ (ʚ)		ɜ (ɞ)	ʌ
Higher low	æ		ɐ		(ɔ)
Low	a		ɑ		ꭤ (ɒ)

Chomsky & Halle

Chomsky & Halle (1968) proposed the following schema, which was hardly ever used. In addition to the table, there was ⟨ə⟩ for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Chomsky & Halle vowel symbols

		[−back]		[+back]
		[−round]	[+round]	[−round]	[+round]
[+high −low]	[+tense]	i	ü	ᵻ̄	u
	[−tense]	ɪ	ᴜ̈	ᵻ	ᴜ
[−high −low]	[+tense]	e	ȫ	ʌ̄	ō
	[−tense]	ɛ	ö	ʌ	o
[−high +low]	[+tense]	ǣ	ꭢ̄	ā	ɔ̄
	[−tense]	æ	ꭢ	a	ɔ

Tone and prosody

Pike (1947) provides the following tone marks:

• High: V́ or V¹
• Mid: V̍ or V²
• Norm: V̄ or V³
• Low: V̀ or V⁴

Stress is primary ˈCV or V́ and secondary ˌCV or V̀.

Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' are |, ||, as in IPA.

Syllable division is CV.CV, as in IPA, and morpheme boundaries are CV-CV.

Historical charts of 1916

The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

	narrow			wide
	back	mixed	front	back	mixed	front
high	ï	ı᷸ (= ˙ı)	i	ɩ̈	ɩ᷸ (= ˙ɩ)	ɩ
mid	α [ʌ]		e	a		ε
low					ȧ	ä
high round	u	u̇	ü	υ	υ̇	ϋ
mid round	o	ȯ	ö	ɔ	ɔ̇	ɔ̈
low round	ω	ω̇	ω̈

	Stops					Spirants			Affricates			Nasals		Laterals			Lateral Affricates			Rolled Consonants
	Surd	Sonant	Intermed.	Aspirated	Glot- talized	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*	Surd	Sonant	Glot- talized*
Bilabial (rounded)	pw	bw	ʙw	pwʽ	p̓w , pwǃ	ƕ	w	ƕǃ	pƕ	bw	pƕǃ	ᴍw	mw
Bilabial (unrounded)	p	b	ʙ	pʽ	p̓ , pǃ	φ	β	φǃ	pφ	bβ	pφǃ	ᴍ	m
Dento- labial						f	v	fǃ	pf	bv	pfǃ
Inter- dental						θ	ϑ	θǃ	tθ	dϑ	tθǃ
Linguo- dental	t̯	d̯	ᴅ̯	t̯ʽ	t̯̓ , t̯ǃ	s̯	z̯	s̯ǃ	t̯s	d̯z	t̯sǃ	ɴ̯	n̯	ƚ̯ , ʟ̯	l̯	ƚ̯ǃ	t̯ƚ	d̯l	t̯ƚǃ	ʀ̯	r̯	ʀ̯ǃ
Linguo- alveolar	t	d	ᴅ	tʽ	t̓ , tǃ	s	z	sǃ	ts	dz	tsǃ	ɴ	n	ƚ , ʟ	l	ƚǃ	tƚ	dl	tƚǃ	ʀ	r	ʀǃ
Cerebral	ṭ	ḍ	ᴅ̣	ṭʽ	ṭ̓ , ṭǃ	ṣ	ẓ	ṣǃ	ṭs	ḍz	ṭsǃ	ɴ̣	ṇ	ƚ̣ , ʟ̣	ḷ	ƚ̣ǃ	ṭƚ	ḍl	ṭƚǃ	ʀ̣	ṛ	ʀ̣ǃ
Dorso- dental	τ̯	δ̯	Δ̯	τ̯ʽ	τ̯̓ , τ̯ǃ	σ̯	ζ̯	σ̯ǃ	τ̯σ	δ̯ζ	τ̯σǃ	ν̯	ν̯	ᴧ̯	λ̯	ᴧ̯ǃ	τ̯ᴧ	δ̯ᴧ	τ̯ᴧǃ
Dorsal	τ	δ	Δ	τʽ	τ̓ , τǃ	σ	ζ	σǃ	τσ	δζ	τσǃ	ν	ν	ᴧ	λ	ᴧǃ	τᴧ	δᴧ	τᴧǃ
Dorso- palatal	τ̣	δ̣	Δ̣	τ̣ʽ	τ̣̓ , τ̣ǃ	σ̣	ζ̣	σ̣ǃ	τ̣σ	δ̣ζ	τ̣σǃ	ν̣	ν̣	ᴧ̣	λ̣	ᴧ̣ǃ	τ̣ᴧ	δ̣ᴧ	τ̣ᴧǃ
Anterior c-sounds	(τy)	(δy)	(Δy)	(τyʽ)	(τ̓ , τyǃ)	cy	jy	cyǃ	tcy	djy	tcyǃ	( ν y)	( ν y)	(ᴧy)	(λy)	(ᴧyǃ)	(τᴧy)	(δᴧy)	(τᴧyǃ)
Mid c-sounds	(ty)	(dy)	(ᴅy)	(tyʽ)	(t̓ , tyǃ)	c	j	cǃ	tc	dj	tcǃ	(ɴy)	(ny)	(ƚy , ʟy)	(ly)	(ƚyǃ)	(tƚy)	(dly)	(tƚyǃ)
Posterior c-sounds	(ṭy)	(ḍy)	(ᴅ̣y)	(ṭyʽ)	(ṭ̓ , ṭyǃ)	c̣	j̣	c̣ǃ	ṭc	ḍj	ṭcǃ	(ɴ̣y)	(ṇy)	(ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y)	(ḷy)	(ƚ̣yǃ)	(ṭƚy)	(ḍly)	(ṭƚyǃ)
Anterior palatal	k̯	g̯	ɢ̯	k̯ʽ	k̯̓ , k̯ǃ	x̯	γ̯	x̯ǃ	k̯x	g̯γ	k̯xǃ	ᴎ̯	ŋ̯				k̯ƚ	g̯l	k̯ƚǃ	Ρ̯	ρ̯	ρ̯ǃ
Mid- palatal	k	g	ɢ	kʽ	k̓ , kǃ	x	γ	xǃ	kx	gγ	kxǃ	ᴎ	ŋ				kƚ	gl	kƚǃ	Ρ	ρ	ρǃ
Back palatal, velar	ḳ (q)	g̣	ɢ̣	ḳʽ	ḳ̓ , ḳǃ	x̣	γ̣	x̣ǃ	ḳx	g̣γ	ḳxǃ	ᴎ̣	ŋ̣				ḳƚ	g̣l	ḳƚǃ	Ρ̣	ρ̣	ρ̣ǃ
Glottal	ʼ			ʼʽ		ʽ , h	a (any vowel)		ʼʽ											(a̓)
Laryngeal	ʼ̣			ʼ̣ʽ		ḥ	(any vowel with laryngeal resonance)		ʼ̣ḥ

Notes:

• surd = voiceless; sonant = voiced; intermed. = partially voiced
• In the glottalized stop column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: [k̓ ] = weakly glottalized, [kǃ] = strongly glottalized. (Cf. kʼ = [k] followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
• "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

Variation between authors

Following are symbols that differ among well-known Americanist sources.

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
plosives
		kꞏ	ky	kʸ	kʸ	k̯, kʸ	c
		gꞏ	gy	gʸ	gʸ	ɡ̯, ɡʸ	ɟ
		q	q, ḳ		q	q
		g̣	g̣		ġ	ɡ̇	ɢ
		↋	ʼ	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ	ʔ
affricates
			tθ		θ̂	tθ	t͜θ
			dϑ		ð̂	dð	d͜ð
			ts	c	c	c	t͜s
			dz	ʒ	ʒ	dz	d͜z
	tc		tc	č	č	č	t͜ʃ
	dj		dj	ǯ	ǯ	ǰ	d͡ʒ
		ʟ	tł, tʟ	ƛ	ƛ	ƛ	t͡ɬ
		ʟ̣	dl	λ	λ	λ	d͡ɮ
fricatives
	ç	ç	θ		θ	θ	θ
	ȼ	ȼ	ϑ		δ	ð	ð
	c	c	c		š	š	ʃ
	j	j	j		ž	ž	ʒ
	q	x̣	x		x	x	x
	x	γ	γ		γ	ɣ	ɣ
		x	x̣		x̣	x̣	χ
		γ̣	γ̣		γ̇	ɣ̇	ʁ
					ḥ	ħ	ħ
nasals
	ñ	ñ	ñ	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ	ŋ
		ṇ̃	ṇ̃		ŋ̇	ŋ̇	ɴ
		m̥	ᴍ		M	m̥	m̥
		n̥	ɴ		N	n̥	n̥
		ñ̥	ɴ̃		Ṇ		ŋ̊
laterals		ł	ł, ʟ		ł	ł	ɬ
trills	ɹ		ṛ			ʀ	ʀ

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
aspiration	Cʽ	Cʽ	Cʽ, Cʰ		Cʰ	Cʰ	Cʰ
glottalization	Cʼ (bʼ)	C!	Cʼ	Cʼ	C̓	Cʼ	Cʼ, Cˀ
palatalization		Cꞏ	Cy, Cy	Cʸ	Cʸ	Cʸ	Cʲ
labialization		Cᵘ	Cw, Cw	Cʷ	Cʷ	Cʷ	Cʷ
length		V̄?	V̄	Vꞏ (V:)	Vꞏ (V:)	V꞉ (a꞉ a꞉꞉ or aꞏ a꞉)	Vː (Vːː)
nasalization	Vⁿ	Vⁿ	V̨		Ṽ	V̨	Ṽ

	Powel 1880	Boas 1911	AAA 1916	Sapir 1934	Sturtevant 1978	WIELD 2020	IPA
vowels
	ǐ	i	i, ī		i	i	i
	i		ɩ, i		ɪ	ɪ	ɪ
	ě	e	e, ē		e	e	e
	e		ɛ, e		ɛ	ɛ	ɛ
	ä		ä, ă		æ	æ	æ
	u	u	u, ū		u	u	u
	ǔ		υ, u		ᴜ	ʊ	ʊ
	o	o	o, ō		o	o	o
	ǒ		ɔ, o		ŏ	ɔ	ɔ
	ɔ	â	ω		ɔ	ɒ	ɒ
			ï		ɨ	ɨ, ï	ɨ, ɯ
	û	ᴇ	ə		ə	ə	ə
			ɑ, ȧ		ʌ	ʌ?	ɐ

See also

• Phonetic transcription
• International Phonetic Alphabet
• English Phonetic Alphabet
• Uralic Phonetic Alphabet
• Teuthonista
• Phonetics
• Phonology

External links

• Recommendations of WIELD for Americanist notation

Bibliography

• Abercrombie, David. (1991). Daniel Jones's teaching. In D. Abercrombie, Fifty years in phonetics: Selected papers (pp. 37–47). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (Original work published 1985 in V. A. Fromkin (Ed.), Phonetic linguistics: Essays in honor of Peter Ladefoged, Orlando, Academic Press, Inc.).
• Albright, Robert W. (1958). The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
• American Anthropological Society [Boas, Franz; Goddard, Pliny E.; Sapir, Edward; & Kroeber, Alfred L.]. (1916). Phonetic transcription of Indian languages: Report of committee of American Anthropological Association. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections (Vol. 66, No. 6). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution (American Anthropological Society).
• Bloomfield, Leonard; & Bolling George Melville. (1927). What symbols shall we use? Language, 3 (2), 123–129.
• Boas, Franz. (1911). Introduction. In F. Boas (Ed.), Handbook of American Indian languages (pp. 5–83). Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 40). Washington. (Reprinted 1966).
• Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
• Clark, John; & Yallop, Colin. (1995). An introduction to phonetics and phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19452-5.
• Odden, David. (2005). Introducing phonology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82669-1 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-53404-6 (pbk).
• Goddard, Ives. (1996). Introduction. In I. Goddard (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 1–16). (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
• Herzog, George; Newman, Stanley S.; Sapir, Edward; Swadesh, Mary Haas; Swadesh, Morris; Voegelin, Charles F. (1934). Some orthographic recommendations. American Anthropologist, 36 (4), 629–631. doi:10.1525/aa.1934.36.4.02a00300
• Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw]. Language, 64 (1), 143–144.
• International Phonetic Association. (1949). The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
• Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
• Langacker, Ronald W. (1972). Fundamentals of linguistic analysis. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
• MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Ed.), The world's writing systems (pp. 821–846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
• Maddieson, Ian. (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
• Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• ———— (1947) Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
• Powell, John W. (1880). Introduction to the Study of Indian languages, with words, phrases, and sentences to be collected (2nd Ed.). Washington: Government Printing Office.
• Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Laduslaw, William A. (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
• Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).