使用者:ItMarki/美式標音系統

美式標音系統
類型
使用時期
1880年代至今
語言用於任何語言的語音轉錄
相關書寫體系
父體系
拉丁語字母,以希臘字母擴充
  • 美式標音系統
 本頁面包含國際音標 (IPA) 符號。 有關 IPA 符號的介紹指南,請參閱 Help:IPA[ ]/ / 及 ⟨ ⟩ 之間的區別,參閲IPA§方括號與轉錄定界符

美式標音系統(英語:Americanist phonetic notation)是一個語音轉錄系統,最初由歐洲和美國的人類學家和語言科學家(其中大部分都是新語法學派英語Neogrammarian分子)研發,目的是對美洲原住民語言歐洲語言語音音位轉寫。到現在,研究斯拉夫語族烏拉爾語系閃米特語族高加索諸語言印度語言非洲語言的語言學家仍是經常使用該系統。然而,研究烏拉爾語系的語言學家更常使用一個變體,稱為烏拉爾音標英語Uralic Phonetic Alphabet

國際音標(IPA)相比,美式標音系統更常用附加符號。IPA追求使用最少量的附加符號辨別最多的語音,而它只在齒-齦區別中使用這些符號。美式標音系統依賴附加符號以辨別所轉錄的語言中的許多音素區別。另一方面,美式標音系統會使用單字母表達舌冠塞擦音,而IPA則需要二合字母。在其他方面,美式標音系統變得越來越像IPA,棄用了許多較為晦澀的字母。

與IPA的區別

美式標音系統的某些符號最初與國際音標中的一模一樣,但現已成為棄用國際音標符號比如,⟨ι⟩。隨着時間推移,美式標音系統與IPA越來越相似。愛德華·薩丕爾早期和後期作品的差別便能體現這一點。然而,兩者系統依然由顯著區別,包括:

  • y代表[j]ñ代表[ɲ]c¢代表[t͡s]ƛ代表[t͡ɬ]ł代表[ɬ]
  • 硬齶齒齦音č ǰ š ž,有時還有齦硬齶音ć ś ź ń
  • 齒音和硬齶音(不包括齒無噝擦音θ ð)的前移符號(反短音符),以及捲舌音和小舌音(不包括小舌音q)的後移符號(圓點)
  • rř表示閃音,表示顫音
  • 反尾形符表示鼻音化
  • 元音上的圓點表示央化,兩點(分音符)表示前移(適用於前圓唇元音和後不圓唇元音)
  • 元音上的尖音符和重音符表示重音

歷史

約翰·威斯利·鮑威爾在有關美國語族的出版物中使用一套早期符號,但這些符號都來自其他語音學家和美國作家的作品。人類學家法蘭茲·鮑亞士使用了另一套稍微不同的符號。1916年,美國人類學協會的一份出版物大大擴展了鮑亞士的字母系統。布盧姆菲爾德及博林(1927年)和赫爾佐克等人(1934年)的文章討論並修改這個字母系統。美式標音系統有時出現於《美國人類學家英語American Anthropologist》《國際美國語言學期刊英語International Journal of American Linguistics》和《語言英語Language (journal)》這些期刊中。

阿伯克龍比(1991:44-45)就美式標音系統作出以下論述:

美國的標音系統歷史值得深入討論。倫納德·布龍菲爾德在早期書籍《語言學簡介》(An Introduction to the Study of Language,1914年)和更著名的《語言》(Language,1935年)的英國版中使用了IPA。但自此以後,許多美國語言學家都異常抗拒IPA,尤其是對某些符號。

1952年,查爾斯·沃格林英語Charles F. Voegelin在紐約的人類學研討會中講了一件有趣的事情。他說,在1930年代初,一位「親切的丹麥人」教他語音學,讓他使用「ship」中「sh」音的IPA符號,等等。一會兒後,他在某篇關於一個美國原住民語言的作品中使用了這些符號,準備給愛德華·薩丕爾看。薩丕爾看了這篇作品時直接「火冒三丈」,要求沃格林以後用「š」(s wedge),而不是那個IPA符號。

我堅信那位「親切的丹麥人」其實是漢斯·J·烏爾達爾英語H. J. Uldall。他是丹尼爾·瓊斯最出色的學徒之一,之後和路易·葉爾姆斯列夫創始了言理學英語glossematics。烏爾達爾深入研究了加利福尼亞州的語言,特別是東北邁杜語英語Maidu南方邁杜語英語Nisenan language(邁杜語的分支)。他所寫的大多數文章都沒有在他生前發布。諷刺的是,這些作品在烏爾達爾死後被加州大學出版社出版時,編輯引言說它們「的拼寫法都經過了重寫」:烏爾達爾所用的IPA符號都被移除或替換成其他符號。

奇怪的是,IPA符號對於美國標音系統符號有明顯優勢,比如「長s」和「s wedge」。瓊斯指出為求易讀性,語音學家都應儘量避免使用附加符號。許多美國語言學家的作品乍看都像是充斥了附加符號。

有人可能想知道為什麼美國語言學家都這麼排斥IPA。我想為這個似乎不理智的態度提供一個理由。尋根究底,這個憎恨來自大多數美國大學都有的語言部門,而英國大學是沒有的。語言部門一般有權有勢、有錢有人。就語言學和語音學而言,他們以規範語言學英語Linguistic prescription著稱,有些人則覺得他們則不太有學問。他們在出版物和期刊中會用IPA標記讀音。我相信美國語言學部門成員最不想遇到的一件事是被誤認為是語言部門的成員,但如果他在作品中使用IPA,則必定會招致這個懷疑。

字母

輔音

美式標音系統沒有一個中心機構。 西方瀕危語言文獻研究所英語Western Institute for Endangered Language Documentation(WIELD)推薦以下用法:[1]

前移是⟨⟩,後移是⟨⟩。輔音延長是⟨C꞉⟩或⟨CC⟩。聲門音化的例子包括⟨č̓⟩或⟨⟩(擠喉音與聲門化的其他類型歸為同一類)。齶音化是⟨⟩。唇音化、軟齶化、送氣、清音和前鼻化與IPA的相同。咽音、會厭音和聲門音,以及內爆音和搭嘴音與IPA的相同 。。

WIELD建議的美式標音系統輔音
  雙唇音 唇齒音 齒音 齒齦音 捲舌音 齒齦後音 齦齶音 硬齶音 軟齶音 小舌音 咽音 聲門音
塞音 p   t k q ʔ[2]
b   d ɡ̯ ɡ ɡ̇
塞擦音 中央音   pf c č ć kx qx̣
  dz dẓ ǰ
dz̯
邊音       ƛ          
      λ          
擦音 中央音 ɸ f θ s š ś x ħ h
β v ð z ž ź ɣ̯ ɣ ɣ̇ ʕ ɦ
邊音       ł       łʸ    
      ɮ            
鼻音 m n ń ñ ŋ ŋ̇
顫音             ʀ
彈音     r      
近音 中央音   ʋ   ɹ ɹ̣     y  
唇音化     w
邊音     l  

美式標音系統與IPA的區別可分為幾大類:使用附加符號分別從齒齦音和軟齶音得出其他舌冠音和舌背音;將c j λ ƛ用作塞擦音;將y用作輔音;以及將r用作彈音。

注意:

  • 在齒擦音中,θ ð是無噝擦音,而s̯ z̯是有噝擦音。

Rhotics table

Most languages only have one phonemic rhotic consonant (only about 18% of the world's languages have more than one rhotic).[來源請求] As a result, rhotic consonants are generally transcribed with the r character. This usage is common practice in Americanist and also other notational traditions (such as the IPA). This lack of detail, although economical and phonologically sound, requires a more careful reading of a given language's phonological description to determine the precise phonetics. A list of rhotics is given below.

Common rhotic conventions
Alveolar Retroflex/Uvular
Approximant r
Flap ř ṛ̌
Tap ᴅ̇
Trill ṛ̃

Other flaps are ň, l͏̌, etc.

Common alternate symbols

There are many alternate symbols seen in Americanist transcription. Below are some equivalent symbols matched with the symbols shown in the consonant chart above.

  • ¢ may be used for c.
  • č̣ may be used for .
  • j may be used for ʒ.
  • ǰ may be used for ǯ.
  • ƚ may be used for ł.
  • ɸ may be used for φ.
  • G may be used for ġ.
  • X may be used for .
  • ʸ may be used for fronted velars (e.g., kʸ = k̯, gʸ = g̑).
  • Some transcriptions superscript the onset of doubly articulated consonants and the release of fricatives, e.g. ᵍɓ, t̓ᶿ.
  • There may be a distinction between laminal retroflex č̣ ṣ̌ ẓ̌ and apical retroflex c̣ ṣ ẓ in some transcriptions.
  • The fronting diacritic may be a caret rather than an inverted breve, e.g. dental and palatal .
  • Many researchers use the x-caron (x̌) for the voiceless uvular fricative.
  • The use of the standard IPA belted l (ɬ) for the voiceless lateral fricative is becoming increasingly common.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996),[3] typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows. There was, however, little standardization of rhotics, and may be either retroflex or uvular, though as noted above or ṛ̌ may be a retroflex flap vs ṛ̃ as a uvular trill. Apart from the ambiguity of the rhotics below, and minor graphic variants (ȼ g γ for c ɡ ɣ and the placement of the diacritic in g̑ γ̑), this is compatible with the WIELD recommendations. Only precomposed affricates are shown below; others may be indicated by digraphs (e.g. dz).

Typical NAPA consonant values (not prescriptive)
  Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Dental Alveolar Retroflex Palato-
alveolar
Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal
Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t k q   ʔ
voiced b   d g ġ    
Affricate voiceless   ȼ č      
voiced   ǰ      
Lateral affricate voiceless       ƛ              
voiced       λ              
Fricative voiceless ɸ f θ s š x ħ h
voiced β v ð z ž γ̑ γ γ̇ ʕ ɦ
Lateral fricative voiceless       ł              
Nasal m n ñ ŋ ŋ̇    
Rhotic     r        
Lateral     l      
Glide (w)           y (w)    

Ejectives and implosives follow the same conventions as in the IPA, apart from the ejective apostrophe being placed above the base letter.

Pike

Pike英語Kenneth Lee Pike (1947) provides the following set of symbols:

Pike (1947) consonant values
  Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Alveolar Retroflex Alveolo-
palatal
Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyn-
geal
Glottal
Stop (oral) voiceless p   t k ḳ (q) ḳ̣ ʔ
voiced b   d g g̣ (G)    
Affricate voiceless pᵽ   t̯θ ts (ȼ) tš (č)   kx    
voiced bb̶ d̯ꟈ dz (ʒ) dž (ǰ)   gg̶    
Lateral affricate voiceless       tƚ (ƛ)              
voiced       dl (λ)              
Flat fricative voiceless f θ θ̣ x h
voiced v ꟈ̣ g̶̯ g̶̣ ɦ
Sibilant voiceless w̱̟ (W̟) s ṣ , ṣ̌ š
voiced z ẓ , ẓ̌ ž
Lateral fricative voiceless       ƚ̟              
voiced                    
Nasal voiceless m̱ (M) ṉ (N) ṉ̃ (Ñ) ŋ̱ (Ŋ)    
voiced m n ñ ŋ    
Lateral voiceless     ƚ (L) ƚʸ      
voiced     l      
Flap voiceless     ṟ̌        
voiced ř , l͏̌ ṛ̌
Trill voiceless ṟ̃
voiced ṛ̃

Voiceless, voiced and syllabic consonants may also be C̥, C̬ and C̩, as in IPA. Aspirated consonants are Cʻ or C̥ʰ / C̬ʱ. Non-audible release is indicated with superscripting, Vꟲ.

Fortis is C͈ and lenis C᷂. Labialization is C̮ or Cʷ; palatalization is Ꞔ, C⁽ⁱ⁾ or Cʸ; velarization is C⁽ᵘ⁾, and pharyngealization is C̴.

Other airstream mechanisms are pulmonic ingressive C, ejective Cˀ, implosive Cˁ, click C˂, and lingual ejective (spurt) C˃.

Anthropos

The journal Anthropos published the alphabet to be used in their articles in 1907.[4] Although European, it is the same basic system that Sapir and Boas introduced to the United States. Transcription is italic, without other delimiters.

Anthropos alphabet (1907)
  Labial Coronal
("Dental")
Palatal Dorsal
("Guttural")
Pharyn-
geal
Epi-
glottal
Glottal
Bilabial Labio-
dental
Inter-
dental
Alveolar Retroflex Pre-
velar
Velar Uvular
Plosive voiceless p   t c k ʼ
voiced b   d j g    
Affricate voiceless (pf)   t͏̯̌ (t̯s̯) t͏̌ (ts) ṭ̌ (ṭṣ) č () ǩ̯ (k̯x̯) ǩ (kx) ḳ̌ (ḳx̣)
voiced (bv)   d͏̯̌ (d̯z̯) d͏̌ (dz) ḍ̌ (ḍẓ) ǰ () ǧ̯ (g̯y) ǧ (gÿ) ǧ̣ (g̣ỵ̈)    
Fricative voiceless () f s š x h
voiced w v z ž y ÿ ỵ̈    
Rhotic     r̯ ꭈ̯ r ꭈ ṛ ꭈ̣   ꭉ̯ ꭊ̯ ꭉ ꭊ ꭉ̣ ꭊ̣  
Lateral flap     𝼑      
Lateral liquid     l (ĺ)   ɫ    
Lateral affricate voiceless       ()[5]     ()        
voiced       ()     ()        
Lateral fricative voiceless       ()     ()        
voiced       ()     ()        
Nasal m () n (ń) ꬻ̯ () ꬻ̣    
Prenasalized? voiceless  
voiced      
Ejective  
Ingressive p   ʇ ʇ̣ ɔ ʞ

Palatalized consonants are written with an acute – t́ d́ ć j́ ś ź ĺ ń etc. Semivowels are i̯ u̯ ü̯ o̯ e̯ etc.

Vowels

WIELD recommends the following conventions. It doesn't provide characters for distinctions that aren't attested in the literature:[1]

WIELD recommendations for NAPA (semi)vowels
  Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y   w
Close higher i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ʊ̈ ʊ̇ ʊ
Mid higher e ö ə ȯ ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ʌ ɔ
Open higher æ ɒ̈ æ̇ ɑ ɒ
lower a a

No distinction is made between front and central for the lowest unrounded vowels. Diphthongs are e.g. ⟨ai⟩ or ⟨ay⟩, depending on phonological analysis. Nasal vowels are e.g. ⟨ą⟩. Long vowels are e.g. ⟨a꞉⟩. A three-way length distinction may be ⟨a a꞉ a꞉꞉⟩ or ⟨a aꞏ a꞉⟩. Primary and secondary stress are e.g. ⟨á⟩ and ⟨à⟩. Voicelessness is e.g. ⟨⟩, as in the IPA. Creak, murmur, rhoticity et al. are as in the IPA.

Pullum & Ladusaw

According to Pullum & Ladusaw (1996), typical Americanist usage at the time was more-or-less as follows:

Typical NAPA vowel values (not prescriptive)
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ɪ ᴜ̈ ɪ̈
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low æ a/ɑ
Lower-Low a ɑ ɒ

Pike

Pike (1947) presents the following:

Pike (1947) vowel values
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Glide y w
High (higher) i ü ɨ ʉ ï u
lower ι ᴜ̈ ϊ
Mid higher e ö ə ë o
lower ɛ ɔ̈ ʌ ɔ
Low æ
Lower-Low a ɑ ɒ

Nasalization is V̨ or Vⁿ. A long vowel is V꞉ or Vꞏ; half-long is V‧ (raised dot). Positional variants are fronted V˂, backed V˃, raised V˄ and lowered V˅.

Anthropos

Vowels are inconsistent between languages. ï ë etc. may be used for unrounded central vowels,[6] and the a-based letters are poorly defined, with height and rounding confounded.

Anthropos (semi)vowels
  Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
Semivowel ü̯ ī̯ ū̯ ï̯
High higher i ü ī (ï) ū ï u
lower ü̠ ī̠ ū̠ ï̠
Mid higher ọ̈ ẹ̄ ọ̄ ẹ̈
mid e ö ē (ë) ō ë o
lower ö̠ ē̠ ō̠ ë̠
Low higher a̤̣ a̰̣
mid
ä
lower a

There are actually three heights of low front and back vowels. ā is also seen for a low back vowel.

Reduced (obscure) vowels are i̥ e̥ ḁ etc. There are also extra-high vowels ị ụ etc.

Bloch & Trager

Bloch & Trager (1942)[來源請求] proposed the following schema, which was never used. They use a single dot for central vowels and a dieresis to reverse backness. The only central vowels with their own letters are ɨ, which already has a dot, and , which would not be distinct if formed with a dot.

Bloch & Trager vowel symbols
Front Central Back
unround round unround round unround round
High i ü ɨ ï u
Lower-high ɪ ᴜ̈ ᴜ̇ ɪ̈
Higher-mid e ö ë o
Mean-mid ꭥ̈ ᴇ̇ ꭥ̇ ᴇ̈
Lower-mid ɛ ɔ̈ ɛ̇ ɔ̇ ɛ̈ ɔ
Higher-low æ ω̈ æ̇ ω̇ æ̈ ω
Low a ɒ̈ ɒ̇ ä ɒ

Kurath

Kurath (1939) is as follows.[7] Enclosed in parentheses are rounded vowels. Apart from ⟨ʚ, ꭤ⟩ and some differences in alignment, it is essentially the IPA.

Front Half-
front
Central Half-
back
Back
High i (y) ɨ (ʉ) ɯ (u)
Lower high ɪ (ʏ) ᵻ (ᵾ) ɤ (ᴜ)
Higher mid e (ø) ɘ (o)
Mid ə (ɵ)
Lower mid ɛ (ʚ) ɜ (ɞ) ʌ
Higher low æ ɐ (ɔ)
Low a ɑ ꭤ (ɒ)

Chomsky & Halle

Chomsky & Halle (1968) proposed the following schema, which was hardly ever used. In addition to the table, there was ə for an unstressed reduced vowel.

Chomsky & Halle vowel symbols
[−back] [+back]
[−round] [+round] [−round] [+round]
[+high −low] [+tense] i ü ᵻ̄ u
[−tense] ɪ ᴜ̈
[−high −low] [+tense] e ȫ ʌ̄ ō
[−tense] ɛ ö ʌ o
[−high +low] [+tense] ǣ ꭢ̄ ā ɔ̄
[−tense] æ a ɔ

Tone and prosody

Pike (1947) provides the following tone marks:

  • High: V́ or V¹
  • Mid: V̍ or V²
  • Norm: V̄ or V³
  • Low: V̀ or V⁴

Stress is primary ˈCV or V́ and secondary ˌCV or V̀.

Short or intermediate and long or final 'pauses' are |, ||, as in IPA.

Syllable division is CV.CV, as in IPA, and morpheme boundaries are CV-CV.

Historical charts of 1916

The following charts were agreed by committee of the American Anthropological Association in 1916.[8]

The vowel chart is based on the classification of H. Sweet. The high central vowels are differentiated by moving the centralizing dot to the left rather than with a cross stroke. IPA equivalents are given in a few cases that may not be clear.

narrow wide
back mixed front back mixed front
high ï ı᷸ (= ˙ı) i ɩ̈ ɩ᷸ (= ˙ɩ) ɩ
mid α [ʌ] e a ε
low ȧ ä
high round u ü υ υ̇ ϋ
mid round o ȯ ö ɔ ɔ̇ ɔ̈
low round ω ω̇ ω̈
  Stops Spirants Affricates Nasals Laterals Lateral Affricates Rolled Consonants
Surd Sonant Intermed. Aspirated Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
*
Surd Sonant Glot-
talized
英語Glottalic consonant
*
Bilabial
(rounded)
pw bw ʙw pwʽ w , pwǃ ƕ w ƕǃ bw pƕǃ w mw                  
Bilabial
(unrounded)
p b ʙ p̓ , pǃ φ β φǃ pφǃ m                  
Dento-
labial
          f v pf bv pfǃ                      
Inter-
dental
英語Interdental
          θ ϑ θǃ tθǃ                      
Linguo-
dental
ᴅ̯ t̯ʽ t̯̓ , t̯ǃ s̯ǃ t̯s d̯z t̯sǃ ɴ̯ ƚ̯ , ʟ̯ ƚ̯ǃ t̯ƚ d̯l t̯ƚǃ ʀ̯ ʀ̯ǃ
Linguo-
alveolar
t d t̓ , tǃ s z ts dz tsǃ ɴ n ƚ , ʟ l ƚǃ dl tƚǃ ʀ r ʀǃ
Cerebral ᴅ̣ ṭʽ ṭ̓ , ṭǃ ṣǃ ṭs ḍz ṭsǃ ɴ̣ ƚ̣ , ʟ̣ ƚ̣ǃ ṭƚ ḍl ṭƚǃ ʀ̣ ʀ̣ǃ
Dorso-
dental
τ̯ δ̯ Δ̯ τ̯ʽ τ̯̓ , τ̯ǃ σ̯ ζ̯ σ̯ǃ τ̯σ δ̯ζ τ̯σǃ ν̯ ν̯ ᴧ̯ λ̯ ᴧ̯ǃ τ̯ᴧ δ̯ᴧ τ̯ᴧǃ      
Dorsal τ δ Δ[9] τʽ τ̓ , τǃ σ ζ σǃ τσ δζ τσǃ
ν
[10]
ν
λ ᴧǃ τᴧ δᴧ τᴧǃ      
Dorso-
palatal
τ̣ δ̣ Δ̣ τ̣ʽ τ̣̓ , τ̣ǃ σ̣ ζ̣ σ̣ǃ τ̣σ δ̣ζ τ̣σǃ
ν̣
ν̣
ᴧ̣ λ̣ ᴧ̣ǃ τ̣ᴧ δ̣ᴧ τ̣ᴧǃ      
Anterior
c-sounds
y) y) (Δy) yʽ) (τ̓ , τyǃ) cy jy cyǃ tcy djy tcyǃ (
ν
y)
(
ν
y)
(ᴧy) y) (ᴧyǃ) (τᴧy) (δᴧy) (τᴧyǃ)      
Mid
c-sounds
(ty) (dy) (ᴅy) (tyʽ) (t̓ , tyǃ) c j tc dj tcǃ y) (ny) y , ʟy) (ly) yǃ) (tƚy) (dly) (tƚyǃ)      
Posterior
c-sounds
(ṭy) (ḍy) (ᴅ̣y) (ṭyʽ) (ṭ̓ , ṭyǃ) c̣ǃ ṭc ḍj ṭcǃ (ɴ̣y) (ṇy) (ƚ̣y , ʟ̣y) (ḷy) (ƚ̣yǃ) (ṭƚy) (ḍly) (ṭƚyǃ)      
Anterior
palatal
ɢ̯ k̯ʽ k̯̓ , k̯ǃ γ̯ x̯ǃ k̯x g̯γ k̯xǃ ᴎ̯ ŋ̯       k̯ƚ g̯l k̯ƚǃ Ρ̯ ρ̯ ρ̯ǃ
Mid-
palatal
k g ɢ k̓ , kǃ x γ kx kxǃ [11] ŋ       gl kƚǃ Ρ ρ ρǃ
Back palatal,
velar
ḳ (q) ɢ̣ ḳʽ ḳ̓ , ḳǃ γ̣ x̣ǃ ḳx g̣γ ḳxǃ ᴎ̣ ŋ̣       ḳƚ g̣l ḳƚǃ Ρ̣ ρ̣ ρ̣ǃ
Glottal ʼ     ʼʽ   ʽ , h (any
vowel)
  ʼʽ                     (a̓)    
Laryngeal ʼ̣     ʼ̣ʽ   (any vowel with laryngeal resonance)   ʼ̣ḥ                          

Notes:

  • surd = voiceless; sonant = voiced; intermed. = partially voiced
  • In the glottalized stop column, the phonetic symbol appearing on the left side (which is a consonant plus an overhead single quotation mark) represents a weakly glottalized英語Glottalic consonant stop (i.e. weakly ejective). The symbol on the right side is strongly glottalized (i.e. it is articulated very forcefully). Example: [k̓ ] = weakly glottalized, [kǃ] = strongly glottalized. (Cf. = [k] followed by glottal stop.) This convention is only shown for the glottalized stops, but may be used for any of the glottalized consonants.
  • "Laryngeal" refers to either pharyngeal or epiglottal.

Variation between authors

Following are symbols that differ among well-known Americanist sources.[12][13]

Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
plosives
kꞏ ky k̯, kʸ c
gꞏ gy ɡ̯, ɡʸ ɟ
q q, ḳ q q
ġ ɡ̇ ɢ
ʼ ʔ ʔ ʔ ʔ
affricates
θ̂ t͜θ
ð̂ d͜ð
ts c c c t͜s
dz ʒ ʒ dz d͜z
tc tc č č č t͜ʃ
dj dj ǯ ǯ ǰ d͡ʒ
ʟ tł, tʟ ƛ ƛ ƛ t͡ɬ
ʟ̣ dl λ λ λ d͡ɮ
fricatives
ç ç θ θ θ θ
ȼ ȼ ϑ δ ð ð
c c c š š ʃ
j j j ž ž ʒ
q x x x x
x γ γ γ ɣ ɣ
x χ
γ̣ γ̣ γ̇ ɣ̇ ʁ
ħ ħ
nasals
ñ ñ ñ ŋ ŋ ŋ ŋ
ṇ̃ ṇ̃ ŋ̇ ŋ̇ ɴ
M
ɴ N
ñ̥ ɴ̃ ŋ̊
laterals ł ł, ʟ ł ł ɬ
trills ɹ ʀ ʀ
Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
aspiration Cʽ, Cʰ
glottalization Cʼ (bʼ) C! Cʼ, 英語Glottalic consonant
palatalization Cꞏ Cy, Cy 英語Palatalized consonant
labialization Cᵘ Cw, Cw
length V̄? Vꞏ (V:) Vꞏ (V:) V꞉ (a꞉ a꞉꞉ or aꞏ a꞉) Vː (Vːː)
nasalization Vⁿ Vⁿ
Powel
1880
Boas
1911
AAA
1916
Sapir
1934
Sturtevant
1978
WIELD
2020
IPA
vowels
ǐ i i, ī i i i
i ɩ, i ɪ ɪ ɪ
ě e e, ē e e e
e ɛ, e ɛ ɛ ɛ
ä ä, ă æ æ æ
u u u, ū u u u
ǔ υ, u ʊ ʊ
o o o, ō o o o
ǒ ɔ, o ŏ ɔ ɔ
ɔ â ω ɔ ɒ ɒ
ï ɨ ɨ, ï ɨ, ɯ
û ə ə ə ə
ɑ, ȧ ʌ ʌ? ɐ

See also

References

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 WIELD's Recommended Americanist Transcription System
  2. ^ ʔ⟩ is often rendered by removing the dot from a question mark ⟨?⟩.
  3. ^ Phonetic Symbol Guide, 2nd ed., p. 301–302
  4. ^ P. W. Schmidt, P. G. Schmidt and P. J. Hermes, "Die Sprachlaute und ihre Darstellung in einem allgemeinen linguistischen Alphabet (Schluß) / Les sons du langage et leur représentation dans un alphabet linguistique général (Conclusion)", Anthropos, Bd. 2, H. 5. (1907), insert at page 1098
  5. ^ Although Anthropos specifies a bridge for lateral obstruents, it was more common at the time to use a tilde.
  6. ^ The central vowels shown here do not appear in the main vowel charts, but occur in various illustrations.
  7. ^ Kurath, Hans. Handbook of the Linguistic Geography of New England. Brown University. 1939: 123. 
  8. ^ Boas, Goddard, Sapir & Kroeber (1916) Phonetic Transcription of Indian Languages: Report of Committee of American Anthropological Association. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections 66.6.[1] Chart is a fold-out behind the back cover that is not reproduced at this link.
  9. ^ There is no small-capital delta in Unicode. A full capital would normally be substituted.
  10. ^ Not supported by Unicode. It can be kept distinct in a database as Greek Ν, but that is not visually distinct in print.
  11. ^ Small-capital engma is rendered various ways. ⟨⟩ is the form it takes in the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet英語Uralic Phonetic Alphabet and is the form supported by Unicode.
  12. ^ Mithun, Languages of Native North America, 1999, p. viii.
  13. ^ Sturtevant, Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 17, 1978, p. 12ff

Bibliography

  • Abercrombie, David. (1991). Daniel Jones's teaching. In D. Abercrombie, Fifty years in phonetics: Selected papers (pp. 37–47). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. (Original work published 1985 in V. A. Fromkin (Ed.), Phonetic linguistics: Essays in honor of Peter Ladefoged, Orlando, Academic Press, Inc.).
  • Albright, Robert W. (1958). The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
  • American Anthropological Society [Boas, Franz; Goddard, Pliny E.; Sapir, Edward; & Kroeber, Alfred L.]. (1916). Phonetic transcription of Indian languages: Report of committee of American Anthropological Association. Smithsonian miscellaneous collections (Vol. 66, No. 6). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution (American Anthropological Society).
  • Bloomfield, Leonard; & Bolling George Melville. (1927). What symbols shall we use? Language, 3 (2), 123–129.
  • Boas, Franz. (1911). Introduction. In F. Boas (Ed.), Handbook of American Indian languages (pp. 5–83). Bureau of American Ethnology bulletin (No. 40). Washington. (Reprinted 1966).
  • Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
  • Clark, John; & Yallop, Colin. (1995). An introduction to phonetics and phonology (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19452-5.
  • Odden, David. (2005). Introducing phonology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82669-1 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-53404-6 (pbk).
  • Goddard, Ives. (1996). Introduction. In I. Goddard (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Languages (Vol. 17, pp. 1–16). (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-16-048774-9.
  • Herzog, George; Newman, Stanley S.; Sapir, Edward; Swadesh, Mary Haas; Swadesh, Morris; Voegelin, Charles F. (1934). Some orthographic recommendations. American Anthropologist, 36 (4), 629–631. doi:10.1525/aa.1934.36.4.02a00300
  • Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw]. Language, 64 (1), 143–144.
  • International Phonetic Association. (1949). The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
  • Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), The encyclopedia of language and linguistics (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
  • Langacker, Ronald W. (1972). Fundamentals of linguistic analysis. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Ed.), The world's writing systems (pp. 821–846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
  • Maddieson, Ian. (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge studies in speech science and communication. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
  • Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • ———— (1947) Phonemics: A Technique for Reducing Languages to Writing. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Powell, John W. (1880). Introduction to the Study of Indian languages, with words, phrases, and sentences to be collected (2nd Ed.). Washington: Government Printing Office.
  • Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Laduslaw, William A. (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
  • Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978–present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1–20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published).

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