维基百科

发展协调障碍

发展协调障碍（英语：Developmental coordination disorder，缩写：DCD）[1][2][3][4][5][6][7]也称为发展性协调障碍[8]、动作协调障碍[9]或动作障碍[10][11][12][13]是一种神经发展障碍。其特征是大脑讯息无法准确传递到身体，导致肢体协调受损。动作技能的缺失随着儿童的实际年龄干预日常生活活动[14]。发展协调障碍只在没有其他神经损伤（例如大脑麻痹[15][10]、多发性硬化症或帕金森氏症）之下方可诊断。

Developmental coordination disorder
又称Developmental motor coordination disorder, developmental dyspraxia
类型活动障碍[*]、特殊性发育障碍、疾病
分类和外部资源
医学专科Psychiatry, neurology
ICD-116A04
ICD-9-CM315.4
DiseasesDB31600
MedlinePlus001533
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
维基百科中的医学内容仅供参考，并不能视作专业意见。如需获取医疗帮助或意见，请咨询专业人士。详见医学声明。

根据加拿大CanChild的说法，这种疾病影响5%到6%的学龄儿童[16]。不过这种疾病确实会发展到成年，成为终身的健康状况。

征象和症状

由于无法治愈，发展协调障碍影响各种发育，将会持续到成年[13]。通常发展出各种应对策略，应对策略能够透过职业治疗、物理治疗、语言治疗、心理治疗及心理动作治疗加强。

肢体受损之外，发展协调障碍影响记忆（尤其工作记忆）[17]。患者难以记得指令、限期及管理时间，并且倾向忘记物品以及难以执行需要记得多个步骤的任务（例如煮食）。纵使人们普遍在某程度上也碰到上述难题，上述难题却更大程度上影响患者的生活[18]。很多患者虽然短期记忆差劲，长期记忆却出色[18]。患者受惠于有序环境，因为重复例行程序减低时间管理的难度，患者也能够将步骤置于长期记忆当中。

患者有时难以调整来自身体的感官资讯。因此，这些患者也许容易遭受感官过度负荷和恐慌发作[18]。

有些患者遭遇肢体动作的中度至极端困难。由于正确执行肢体动作消耗大幅能量，导致发展协调障碍患者普遍疲惫。肌肉张力减退及肌肉张力低同样损害一些发展协调障碍患者的平衡力[2]

一般运动控制

全身动作和动作协调问题指主要发展目标（包括步行、跑步、攀爬和跳跃）受影响。遭受的困难因人而异，可能包括以下行为：

  • 节拍不当[19]
  • 平衡力差[19][20]（有时甚至中幅度步行摔倒，常见自己绊倒自己）
  • 难以合并一连串受控动作
  • 难以记得下一个动作
  • 难以意识空间[20][21]或肌肉运动知觉。
  • 难以拾起及握住简单物品如铅笔，因为肌肉张力或肌肉运动知觉差劲
  • 笨拙到碰跌物品令自己受伤及不小心撞到人
  • 左右不分
  • 常见交叉用手、转换惯用手、双撇子
  • 难以咀嚼食物

精细动作控制

精细动作问题导致难以执行多方面的任务，例如使用刀叉、扣钮、绑鞋带、煮食、刷牙、弄头发、剃须[2][22]、化妆、保养、打开瓶罐及包装、锁门及开锁、做家务。

精细动作协调问题也会导致书写困难[2]，或许出自联想或联想动作困难[19][23]。行为可能包括：

  • 学习基本动作[24]
  • 建立想要的书写速度[22]
  • 正确握笔[22]
  • 难以阅读的笔迹，以可能漏字或错误排列文字
  • 排列字位——例如拉丁字母以及数字

发展性言语失用症

发展性言语失用症（DVD）是一种联想障碍性失用症，导致言语障碍。英国支持这个术语，但发展性言语失用症有时被称为构音运用障碍（articulatory dyspraxia），在美国通常称为儿童期言语失用症（childhood apraxia of speech, CAS）[25][26][27]。

主要行为包括：

  • 难以控制言语器官
  • 难以发音
  • 难以发出一连串的声音
    • 单字音节，以及
    • 以单字组成句子
  • 难以控制呼吸、抑制流涎和唱歌时发声（有歌词）。
  • 语言发展缓慢

相关失调及二次后果

发展协调障碍患者也许有以下共病：

不过，发展协调障碍患者不太可能同时具备上述所有条件，其遭受困难的程度因人而异。一个患者的主要弱项可能是另一个患者的强项或天赋。例如有些患者有读写障碍，或计算障碍，其他患者却或许有出色的阅读、拼写或数学能力。ADHD和发展协调障碍的共病率特别高，大约50%（一半发展协调障碍患者有ADHD，一半ADHD患者有发展协调障碍）[42][43][44]。

感官处理障碍

感官处理障碍（SPD）是对于生理刺激的过度敏感或过度不敏感（例如触觉、视觉、听觉及嗅觉）[45]。可能外现为无能力忍受某种质地（例如砂纸）或布料（例如羊毛）、口腔无法忍受口感过于丰富的食物（普遍被认为挑食）、被触碰（触觉过度敏感的个案）、或由于阳光使其不适而需要定期在户外使用太阳眼镜（视觉过度敏感的个案）。厌恶响亮音乐及本身响亮的环境（如舞厅及酒吧）是听觉过敏的典型表现，只有在异常温暖或寒冷环境之下才感到舒适是温度过敏的典型表现。对刺激过于不敏感也许会造成困难，因为个人缺乏足够的感官资讯去理解身体在空间的哪个位置，令其更难以完成任务[46]。对痛楚过于不敏感或许不意识自己受伤。

发展性言语障碍

发展性言语障碍（DLD），前称特殊语言障碍（specific language disorder, SLI）、接受性-表达性混合语言障碍或言语障碍。研究发现拥有正常语言技巧的发展协调障碍学生仍然经历学习障碍。即是说，发展协调障碍学生遭遇的学习障碍取决于其工作记忆能力。任何语言强项不足以完全支持其学习[40]。

发展协调障碍学生的视觉空间记忆遭受最大障碍。患有发展协调障碍的学生相对可能在视觉空间记忆得到差劲的分数，比没有此障碍的同侪高出7倍[47]。视觉空间记忆受损是一种工作记忆受损，导致患有发展协调障碍的学生同时出现学习障碍[48]。

心理和社交后果

心理层面：发展协调障碍儿童也许遭受社交上比同侪较低的自我效能，以及认为自己的能力比同侪低。有些儿童展现更高程度的攻击性及活跃度[49]。

社交层面：儿童也许更容易遭受社会排挤及欺凌，或许令其更孤独[49]。

诊断

评估发展协调障碍通常需要潜在患者的童年发展历史[11]，患者的童年发展历史需要详细说明重要的儿童发展阶段（如爬行和步行）在什么岁数发生[5][10][28]。

为了诊断儿童是否患上发展协调障碍，美国精神医学学会列出四种包括性的主要诊断准则[28]。

准则如下：

  1. 动作协调大幅降少，智力正常
  2. 动作协调或动作规划的困难干预儿童日常生活
  3. 动作协调困难不是出自其他医疗状况
  4. 即使有共病（如智力障碍或其他发展障碍），动作协调仍有不成比例的影响[11]

能够应用于发展协调障碍的筛查包括：

  • Movement Assessment Battery for Children (Movement-ABC – Movement-ABC 2)[50][51][52][53][54]
  • Peabody Developmental Motor Scales- Second Edition (PDMS-2)[50]
  • Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOTMP-BOT-2)[50][55][56][57]
  • Motoriktest für vier- bis sechsjährige Kinder (MOT 4–6)[50][58]
  • Körperkoordinationtest für Kinder (KTK)[50]
  • Test of Gross Motor Development, Second Edition (TGMD-2)[50]
  • Maastrichtse Motoriek Test (MMT)[50]
  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV) 
  • Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WAIT-II) 
  • Test Of Word Reading Efficiency Second Edition (TOWRE-2) 
  • Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCD-Q).[59] 此问卷已译成多种语文，例如法文人士可用加拿大法文版[60]或欧陆法文版[61]。
  • Children's Self-Perceptions of Adequacy in, and Predilection for Physical Activity (CSAPPA)[62]

目前没有单一评估测试[50]。

最低限度的动作评估是介入发展障碍的起点。对比正常儿童的发展速度或许有助寻找患童明显遭受困难的方面。

不过，《英国特殊教育杂志》的研究显示，仍然严重缺乏有关识别及应对各种困难的知识（包括发展协调障碍、阅读障碍、DAMP）[28]。及早留意及评估能够更快介入。如果老师或全科医生只是粗略诊断，很可能会错过有需要的患者。

“如果老师知识有限，就无法识别或帮助学习障碍的儿童。相似地，医生难以侦测及转介学习障碍儿童到适当的地方。”[63]

分类

发展协调障碍在《精神疾病诊断与统计手册第五版》 (DSM-5) 归类为动作障碍，位于神经发育障碍类别[64][65]。

控制

发展协调障碍无法治愈，只能透过治疗控制。物理治疗或职业治疗能够帮助患者。

有些患者利用替代方法帮助自己，例如打字取代写字，或利用日记及日历保持条理[66]。Cochrane在2017年审核对发展协调障碍的任务导向介入，得到不一致的结果，呼吁随机化对照组及进一步研究[67]。

流行病学

发展协调障碍是终生神经系统状况，男性和女性同样普遍。不过目前的诊断准则有利男性，导致超过80%男性在16岁前确诊，相对22%女性。发展协调障碍的实际比例是未知，由于缺乏具体实验室测试而难以侦测。因此，只要诊断出其中一种状况就会排除其他可能的原因或疾病。大约5%-6%儿童及成人受此影响[2][4][5][68]。

历史

Collier首先形容发展协调障碍为“先天性发育不良”。1972年，A. Jean Ayres形容发展协调障碍为感官统合障碍[69][70]。1975年，医学博士Sasson Gubbay称之为“笨拙儿童症”[11][30][71]。发展协调障碍也曾被称为“最低度脑部失能”，后两者已不再使用。

其他名称包括发展性失用症[11]、注意力和运动感知障碍（DAMP）[11][30]、动作障碍[10]、发育性运动障碍[11]、动作学习障碍[11][30]感知动作失能[11][30][70]和感官动作失能[11]。

世界卫生组织目前将发展协调障碍列作“动作功能的具体发展障碍（"Specific Developmental Disorder of Motor Function"）”[10]

流行文化

Ryan Sinclair是BBC科幻电视节目《神秘博士》中博士的人类伴侣，患有这种失调。该角色于2018年首次亮相。[72]

著名案例

公开表明确诊发展协调障碍的人包括《哈利波特》演员丹尼尔拉德克利夫[73]、摄影师大卫贝利[74]、模特卡拉迪瓦伊[75]、歌手弗洛伦斯韦尔奇[76]、英国政治家艾玛勒威尔巴克[77][78]、橄榄球联盟球员Ellis Genge[79]、演员Will Poulter[80]、歌手Mel B[81]、演员Olive Gray[82]、作家Holly Smale[83]、游戏评论家John "TotalBiscuit" Bain[84]和音乐家托亚·威尔考克斯[85]。

参见

参考

  1. ^ An International Consensus on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1995, 62 (1): 3–6. doi:10.1177/000841749506200101. 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Developmental coordination disorder. Physical Therapy. August 2003, 83 (8): 722–31 [2022-05-02]. PMID 12882613. doi:10.1093/ptj/83.8.722. （原始内容存档于2016-07-13）. 
  3. ^ Consensus Statements. CanChild. [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-22）. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 European Academy for Childhood Disability (EACD): recommendations on the definition, diagnosis and intervention of developmental coordination disorder (long version). Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. January 2012, 54 (1): 54–93. PMID 22171930. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2011.04171.x. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Developmental coordination disorder: a review and update. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. November 2012, 16 (6): 573–81. PMID 22705270. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.05.005. 
  6. ^ 發展協調障礙 物理治療運動指南 (PDF). web.archive.org. 屯门医院物理治疗部. [2022-05-02]. 原始内容存档于2022-05-02. 
  7. ^ 陈玉兰. 何為發展協調障礙. web.archive.org. 台北荣民总医院 复健部 儿童发展评估中心. 2021-11-14 [2022-05-02]. 原始内容存档于2021-11-14. 
  8. ^ 發展性協調障礙. web.archive.org. 协康会. 2022-05-02 [2022-05-02]. 原始内容存档于2022-05-02. 
  9. ^ World Health Organization. ICD-11 – Mortality and Morbidity Statistics: 6A04 Developmental motor coordination disorder. icd.who.int. 2018 [25 February 2019]. （原始内容存档于2018-08-01）. 
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Toward an understanding of developmental coordination disorder: terminological and diagnostic issues. Neural Plasticity. 2003, 10 (1–2): 1–13. PMC 2565424  . PMID 14640303. doi:10.1155/NP.2003.1. 
  11. ^ 11.00 11.01 11.02 11.03 11.04 11.05 11.06 11.07 11.08 11.09 Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder? Unravelling the enigma. Archives of Disease in Childhood. June 2007, 92 (6): 534–9. PMC 2066137  . PMID 17515623. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.088054. 
  12. ^ Terminology used in research reports of developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. November 2006, 48 (11): 937–41. PMID 17044965. doi:10.1017/S0012162206002040. 
  13. ^ 13.0 13.1 The development and standardization of the Adult Developmental Co-ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC). Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2010, 31 (1): 131–9. PMID 19819107. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.08.010. 
  14. ^ Kotsopoulos, S. https://archive.org/details/diagnosticstatis0005unse/page/257 |chapterurl=缺少标题 (帮助). Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience. DSM Library 26 (American Psychiatric Association). 2013-05-22: 257. ISBN 978-0890425558. PMC 1408294  . doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm01. 
  15. ^ Developmental Coordination Disorder and cerebral palsy: categories or a continuum?. Human Movement Science. October 2010, 29 (5): 787–98. PMID 20594606. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2010.04.006. 
  16. ^ Developmental Coordination Disorder. CanChild (2016-02). [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-22）. 
  17. ^ Working memory in children with developmental disorders (PDF). Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2009, 42 (4): 372–82 [2022-05-02]. PMID 19380495. doi:10.1177/0022219409335214. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-11-23）. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Biggs, Victoria. 3 A Survival Guide to School. London; Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 2005. ISBN 978-1-84310-347-9. OCLC 57316751. 
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Parental questions about developmental coordination disorder: A synopsis of current evidence. Paediatrics & Child Health. October 2006, 11 (8): 507–12. PMC 2528644  . PMID 19030319. doi:10.1093/pch/11.8.507. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder. Neural Plasticity. 2005, 12 (2–3): 183–96; discussion 263–72. PMC 2565450  . PMID 16097486. doi:10.1155/NP.2005.183. 
  21. ^ Information processing deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder: a meta-analysis of research findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. September 1998, 39 (6): 829–40. PMID 9758192. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00384. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 Developmental coordination disorder (dyspraxia): an overview of the state of the art. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology. December 2005, 12 (4): 250–8. PMID 16780296. doi:10.1016/j.spen.2005.12.007. 
  23. ^ Handwriting measures as reflectors of executive functions among adults with Developmental Coordination Disorders (DCD). Frontiers in Psychology. 2013, 4: 357. PMC 3693067  . PMID 23805113. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00357. 
  24. ^ Central representations of human limb movement as revealed by studies of drawing and handwriting. Trends in Neurosciences. August 1989, 12 (8): 287–91. PMID 2475946. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(89)90008-8. 
  25. ^ FOXP2 and the neuroanatomy of speech and language (PDF). Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. February 2005, 6 (2): 131–8 [2022-05-02]. PMID 15685218. doi:10.1038/nrn1605. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2020-03-09）. 
  26. ^ The distinct and overlapping phenotypic spectra of FOXP1 and FOXP2 in cognitive disorders. Human Genetics. November 2012, 131 (11): 1687–98. PMC 3470686  . PMID 22736078. doi:10.1007/s00439-012-1193-z. 
  27. ^ Evo-devo, deep homology and FoxP2: implications for the evolution of speech and language. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. July 2011, 366 (1574): 2124–40. PMC 3130369  . PMID 21690130. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0001. 
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Children with developmental coordination disorders. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. April 2007, 100 (4): 182–6. PMC 1847727  . PMID 17404341. doi:10.1177/014107680710011414. 
  29. ^ [Motor problems in children with ADHD receive too little attention in clinical practice]. Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde. 2011, 155 (50): A3559. PMID 22186361 （荷兰语）. 
  30. ^ 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 Why bother about clumsiness? The implications of having developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Neural Plasticity. 2003, 10 (1–2): 59–68. PMC 2565425  . PMID 14640308. doi:10.1155/NP.2003.59. 
  31. ^ Lucas, Barbara R; Doney, Robyn; Latimer, Jane; Watkins, Rochelle E; Tsang, Tracey W; Hawkes, Genevieve; Fitzpatrick, James P; Oscar, June; Carter, Maureen. Impairment of motor skills in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in remote Australia: The Lililwan Project. Drug and Alcohol Review (Australasian Professional Society on Alcohol and other Drugs). 2016, 35 (6): 719–727 [10 December 2021]. PMID 26879822. doi:10.1111/dar.12375. （原始内容存档于2021-12-10）. 
  32. ^ Dyspraxia in autism: association with motor, social, and communicative deficits. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. October 2007, 49 (10): 734–9. PMID 17880641. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00734.x. 
  33. ^ The neurology of autism spectrum disorders. Current Opinion in Neurology. April 2011, 24 (2): 132–9. PMC 3160764  . PMID 21293268. doi:10.1097/WCO.0b013e3283446450. 
  34. ^ Meta review of systematic and meta analytic reviews on movement differences, effect of movement based interventions, and the underlying neural mechanisms in autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 2013, 7: 16. PMC 3607787  . PMID 23532374. doi:10.3389/fnint.2013.00016. 
  35. ^ Mathematical problems in children with developmental coordination disorder. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2012, 33 (4): 1128–35. PMID 22502838. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.02.007. 
  36. ^ SOS: a screening instrument to identify children with handwriting impairments. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. August 2012, 32 (3): 306–19 [2022-05-02]. PMID 22515913. doi:10.3109/01942638.2012.678971. （原始内容存档于2022-05-02）. 
  37. ^ Pickering, Susan J.; Gathercole. https://web.archive.org/web/20200801035725/https://books.google.com/books?id=IoXidOBdNpMC&pg=PA29 |archive-url=缺少标题 (帮助). Packiam Alloway, Susan E. (编). Working Memory and Neurodevelopmental Disorders. Psychology Press. 2012 [2022-05-02]. ISBN 978-1-135-42134-2. （原始内容存档于2020-08-01）. 
  38. ^ Michele Poletti. Disturbo di Sviluppo della Coordinazione Motoria e Sindrome Non Verbale: esistono aree di sovrapposizione clinica?. Psicologia Clinica Dello Sviluppo. 2011, (3): 525–550. doi:10.1449/35886. 
  39. ^ Sensory integration and activities of daily living in children with developmental coordination disorder. Italian Journal of Pediatrics. April 2012, 38 (1): 14. PMC 3395584  . PMID 22546072. doi:10.1186/1824-7288-38-14. 
  40. ^ 40.0 40.1 Working memory and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and specific language impairment. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 2008, 41 (3): 251–62. Bibcode:10.1.1.541.7017 请检查|bibcode=值 (帮助). PMID 18434291. doi:10.1177/0022219408315815. 
  41. ^ Perceptual skills of children with developmental coordination disorder (PDF). Human Movement Science. March 2001, 20 (1–2): 111–33 [2013-12-29]. PMID 11471393. doi:10.1016/s0167-9457(01)00031-8. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2013-12-30）. 
  42. ^ Barkley, Russell A. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-89862-443-4. OCLC 21335369. 
  43. ^ Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and developmental coordination disorder: Two separate disorders or do they share a common etiology. Behavioural Brain Research. 2015-07-10, 292: 484–492. PMID 26168770. doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2015.07.009. 
  44. ^ Tourette syndrome and other neurodevelopmental disorders: a comprehensive review. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2017-12-04, 11: 59. PMC 5715991  . PMID 29225671. doi:10.1186/s13034-017-0196-x. 
  45. ^ Concept evolution in sensory integration: a proposed nosology for diagnosis (PDF). The American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 2007, 61 (2): 135–40. PMID 17436834. doi:10.5014/ajot.61.2.135. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-10-24）. 
  46. ^ Fitts, Diana. Explaining Motor Dyspraxia in Children and Ways to Address It. The Sensory Toolbox. 2019-03-25 [2019-11-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-01-15） （美国英语）. 
  47. ^ Working memory, reading, and mathematical skills in children with developmental coordination disorder (PDF). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. January 2007, 96 (1): 20–36 [2022-05-02]. PMID 17010988. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2006.07.002. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2021-07-14）. 
  48. ^ A Comparison of Working Memory Profiles and Learning in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder and Moderate Learning Difficulties. Applied Cognitive Psychology. 2007, 21 (4): 473–487. doi:10.1002/acp.1284. 
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 Quality of life domains affected in children with developmental coordination disorder: a systematic review. Child: Care, Health and Development. 2012-04-20, 39 (4): 562–580. PMID 22515477. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2012.01379.x. 
  50. ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 50.7 Movement skill assessment of typically developing preschool children: a review of seven movement skill assessment tools. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine. June 2009, 8 (2): 154–68. PMC 3761481  . PMID 24149522. 
  51. ^ A two-step procedure for the identification of children with developmental co-ordination disorder in Singapore. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. December 1996, 38 (12): 1099–105. PMID 8973295. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1996.tb15073.x. 
  52. ^ Can the movement assessment battery for children-test be the "gold standard" for the motor assessment of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder?. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011, 32 (1): 1–10. PMID 20940096. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.09.006. 
  53. ^ Reliability and validity of age band 1 of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children--second edition. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011, 32 (3): 1046–51. PMID 21333488. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.035. 
  54. ^ Validity and reliability of the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 Checklist for children with and without motor impairments. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. April 2012, 54 (4): 368–75. PMID 22320829. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012.04226.x. 
  55. ^ Use of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency for identifying children with motor impairment. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. November 2007, 49 (11): 846–8. PMID 17979863. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2007.00846.x. 
  56. ^ Motor assessment of preschool aged children: A preliminary investigation of the validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency - short form. Human Movement Science. August 2009, 28 (4): 543–50 [2022-05-02]. PMID 19443065. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2009.03.002. （原始内容存档于2022-05-02）. 
  57. ^ The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form is reliable in children living in remote Australian Aboriginal communities. BMC Pediatrics. September 2013, 13: 135. PMC 3844452  . PMID 24010634. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-13-135. 
  58. ^ The Motor-Proficiency-Test for children between 4 and 6 years of age (MOT 4-6): an investigation of its suitability in Greece. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2012, 33 (5): 1626–32. PMID 22543059. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2012.04.002. 
  59. ^ Evaluation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire as a screening instrument. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. August 2006, 48 (8): 668–73. PMID 16836779. doi:10.1017/S001216220600140X. 
  60. ^ French Canadian cross-cultural adaptation of the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire '07: DCDQ-FC. Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy. December 2011, 78 (5): 318–27. PMID 22338299. doi:10.2182/cjot.2011.78.5.7. 
  61. ^ Lin, Chung-Ying (编). Psychometric assessment of the French European Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ-FE). PLOS ONE. 2019-05-23, 14 (5): e0217280. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1417280R. PMC 6532915  . PMID 31120966. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217280. 
  62. ^ Evaluation of a screening instrument for developmental coordination disorder. The Journal of Adolescent Health. April 2004, 34 (4): 308–13. PMID 15041000. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2003.07.004. 
  63. ^ Kirby, Amanda; Davies, Rhys; Bryant, Amy. Do teachers know more about specific learning difficulties than general practitioners?. British Journal of Special Education. 2005, 32 (3): 122–126. ISSN 0952-3383. doi:10.1111/j.0952-3383.2005.00384.x. 
  64. ^ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 74–77. ISBN 978-0-89042-559-6. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596. 
  65. ^ Diagnosis and management of developmental coordination disorder. CMAJ. June 2015, 187 (9): 659–665. PMC 4467929  . PMID 26009588. doi:10.1503/cmaj.140994. 
  66. ^ Dyspraxia (developmental co-ordination disorder) in adults. 2017-10-18 [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2022-07-06）. 
  67. ^ Miyahara, Motohide; Hillier, Susan L.; Pridham, Liz; Nakagawa, Shinichi. Task-oriented interventions for children with developmental co-ordination disorder. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 31 July 2017, 7 (8): CD010914. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 6483344  . PMID 28758189. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010914.pub2. 
  68. ^ Educational outreach and collaborative care enhances physician's perceived knowledge about Developmental Coordination Disorder. BMC Health Services Research. January 2008, 8: 21. PMC 2254381  . PMID 18218082. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-8-21. 
  69. ^ Types of sensory integrative dysfunction among disabled learners. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy. 1972, 26 (1): 13–8. PMID 5008164. 
  70. ^ 70.0 70.1 Motor problems in children with developmental coordination disorder: review of the literature (PDF). The American Journal of Occupational Therapy. September 1995, 49 (8): 787–94. PMID 8526224. doi:10.5014/ajot.49.8.787. [失效链接]
  71. ^ The management of developmental apraxia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. October 1978, 20 (5): 643–6. PMID 729912. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1978.tb15283.x. 
  72. ^ Gerken, Tom. Doctor Who: How the dyspraxic assistant became my hero. BBC News (BBC). 2018-10-08 [16 October 2018]. （原始内容存档于2019-04-06）. 
  73. ^ Irvine, Chris. Harry Potter's Daniel Radcliffe has dyspraxia. The Daily Telegraph (London). 2008-08-17 [2010-05-16]. （原始内容存档于2008-08-21）. 
  74. ^ Walsh, John. David Bailey was a scowling, socially mobile rude boy. The Independent. 2 January 2016 [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2019-10-17）. 
  75. ^ Haskell, Rob. Cara Delevingne Opens Up About Her Childhood, Love Life, and Why Modeling Just Isn't Enough. Vogue. 19 June 2015 [14 September 2015]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-24）. 
  76. ^ Hussey, Patrick. Interview: Florence & The Machine. Run Riot. 15 May 2008 [7 March 2010]. （原始内容存档于2012-04-22）. 
  77. ^ Irvine, Chris. 'I'd love to wear eyeliner, but that requires a steady hand' Labour MP Emma Lewell-Buck struggled with clumsiness, until a diagnosis of dyspraxia helped her become a politician. The Daily Telegraph (London). 2013-09-28 [2013-09-28]. （原始内容存档于2022-01-12）. 
  78. ^ Beater, Emily. Studying with dyspraxia: 'I never truly understood an academic text'. The Guardian. 5 March 2019 [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2022-05-02） –通过www.theguardian.com. 
  79. ^ Hennessy, Jason. Ellis Genge Was The Talk Of Television Last Night Following This Incredible Interview. 6 September 2018 [2022-05-02]. （原始内容存档于2018-11-28）. 
  80. ^ The big picture: How Will Poulter shook off the tough tearaway tag to. The Independent. 2013-08-25 [2019-03-25]. （原始内容存档于2019-03-25） （英语）. 
  81. ^ Mel B opens up about her ADHD, ADD and dyspraxia - but what are they?. uk.style.yahoo.com. [2021-04-11]. （原始内容存档于2021-06-18） （英国英语）. 
  82. ^ Olive Gray | Dyspraxic Actor, Musician and Poet by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast. Anchor. [2021-10-23]. （原始内容存档于2022-04-15） （英语）. 
  83. ^ Smale, Holly [@HolSmale]. Just got my results through! I’m officially dyspraxic. Which comes as no surprise to anyone who has ever met me, but may stop me beating myself up for… beating myself up. ❤ (推文). June 29, 2021 [June 6, 2021] –通过Twitter （英语）. 
  84. ^ Bain, John. Sorry, diagnosed dyspraxic with a step-son who as you probably know has adhd and aspergers. This is a topic I care deeply about.. Twitter. [22 May 2020]. （原始内容存档于2022-05-02）. 
  85. ^ Toyah Willcox Life Story | Punk Princess | Longevity & Success | Dyspraxic Star by The Dyspraxic Help 4U Podcast. Anchor. [2021-10-23]. （原始内容存档于2021-10-26） （英语）. 
检索自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=發展協調障礙&oldid=81721063”