维基百科

被认定是伪科学的主题列表

維基媒體列表條目

被认定是伪科学的主题列表（英语：List of topics characterized as pseudoscience）表列出曾被学者或研究者认定为伪科学的主题。学者们将它们认定为伪科学，有时是为了向大众暴露可疑、危险的主张，有时是为了定义科学之本质，有时则只是为了讽刺粗制滥造的低级科学论证。

科学界和科学怀疑论机构是批评伪科学的主力军。对于伪科学主题的批评一般基于逻辑、方法或修辞。[1] 本表列出的主题中，有些在今天仍是科学研究的对象，有些则是过去科学的一部分，在被证伪后又因伪科学借尸还魂；还有些主题自始至终都无科学性质，但或多或少剽窃了某些科学领域或科学实践的内容。以下列出的主题的许多拥护者、从业者都会争辩其所相信的学说是否为伪科学，故本列表每节都会总结定性的原因。

以下主题的具体讨论都在其对应的维基百科页面，本列表仅提供概述。

物理科学

量子力学

  • 量子神秘主义：受量子力学启发，对宗教、超自然和神秘力量的解释。但这些解释并不能证实或证伪。

天文学与空间科学

  • 2012年预言：在2012年会发生灾变和世界末日事件的一种信念，该猜想是从长纪历衍生的。人们把其与公历比对，计算出该年为世界重生的时刻，末日的机制预测是以“太阳风暴”、“银河对齐”、“极移”、“小行星、彗星或行星大规模碰撞（如尼比鲁）”等方式发生[2][3][4]。
  • 古代外星人：由艾利希·冯·丹尼肯于1968年提出[5]，指在古时候，外星人令人类文明兴起，或提供了各古代社会的一些技术性援助[6][7]。

地球科学

  • 几何图形巨石（英语：Pseudoscientific metrology）：支持者假设道一个存在于地球上的几何图形可追溯至少公元前3500年前，以及认为即使到了现在，这样的系统仍受到共济会的应用。据亚历山大汤姆般的支持者认为，英国和布列塔尼巨石文明推动了诸如几何、数学、地球大小般的知识。另一名支持者巴特勒则认为托姆的巨石码曾把地球圆周极坐标分为366度[29][30]。
  • 百慕大三角：百慕大、波多黎各和佛罗里达州（在其最流行的版本）之间的大西洋区域，在此领域频繁的船舶和飞机的灾害和失踪事件遭一些人认为是超自然现象所导致的，与诸如遇上超自然事件、与外星人交流般的相关故事亦在民间广泛流传[6]。
  • 否定气候变化：与否定全球变暖有关的政治争议已受到科学界认定为伪科学[31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38]。
  • 地球空洞说：地球是完全空心的/地壳之下是中空的主张，某些民间传说和阴谋论者仍持有这样的想法，并认为地下生命是存在的。
  • 李森科主义：特罗菲姆·邓尼索维奇·李森科提出来的生物遗传原理，其是基于获得性遗传[39]。李森科主义是否定了孟德尔的生物遗传理论，后来此一主义李森科后命名为米丘林主义。李森科的学说在20世纪40年代末至50年代初在苏联的地位尤其突出。基因在斯大林的集体化运动所引起的饥荒之后被广泛宣称为“资产阶级的科学”。在李森科承诺农作物产量未能兑现后，苏联悄然放弃了李森科的农业实践，改为现代农业的标准做法。到了50年代中期，他的影响力大大下降。现今李森科的农业实验和研究在很大程度上都会视为欺诈[40][41]。
  • 地平说：一种理论认为地球是平的，而非球状。一些边缘团体仍然支持这个理论[42]。

能量

  • 水变油事件：1983年于中国发生的伪科学事件。一位发明家声称，他只需通过加入自己的“可燃炔”制剂数滴，就能把水变成可用燃料。中国政府和中国共产党对于像这样的伪科学声称感到震惊，并发表联合公告，谴责道对大众的科学教育有所衰落[43]。
  • 分数氢（英语：Brilliant Light Power）：氢原子的假设状态，据诸如兰德尔·米尔斯（Randell Mills）般的支持者所言，因为其能量较基态时的低，因此是自由能的一个来源[44][45][46]。
  • 永动机：违反热力学定律的机器。虽自18世纪后期永动机已被确认为伪科学，但至今人们仍提议尝试做出这样的机器和申请专利[13][17][27]。
  • 奥刚（英语：Orgone）：伪科学的一个理念，支持者形容它是一种深奥的能量，或是一种宇宙假想生命的力量，最初由威廉·赖希于20世纪30年代提出[50][51][52]。

建筑学

  • 风水：古代中国的传统建筑学体系，往往遭科学界视为具迷信元素的伪科学。[53][54][55]。
  • 毘罗经典（英语：Vastu shastra）：古印度的建筑学体系，其中规定了一系列与建房氛围有关的规则。诸如贾扬特·纳里卡（英语：Jayant Narlikar）般的科学家写到其与环境没有“逻辑联系”，并指出有时候业主会把已经建成的建筑重建，以适应体系中的规定[56][57]另一个例子则是，一位部长曾下令拆迁在东面的贫民窟，使得他的办公室门口能朝东，按毘罗的从业者所言，把入口改为大门朝东会解决他的政治问题[58][59]。

物理学

生命科学

农业科学

  • 生物动力农业：有机农业的一种方式，把农场的生物个体统一和单一化，生物动力使用已被定为占星用途的日历。生物动力学家所使用的物质和堆肥已被人形容为非常规和顺势。例如，驱逐田鼠的方法是当金星在天蝎座上时，准备由田鼠皮肤制成的骨灰[62][63][64][65]。

应用科学

健康与医学

属伪科学的医疗行为通常被称为庸医（英语：quack）。

  • 替代医学，已遭科学界形容为伪科学的一个分类，国家科学基金会已进行了关于“科幻和伪科学”的“公众态度和公众理解”的调查，包括研究替代医学的受欢迎程度。它认为“相信替代医学”是一项令人关注的问题，其把替代医学定义为“所有治疗方法皆没有通过现代科学方法证明”。其引述怀疑论者调查委员会（英语：Committee for Skeptical Inquiry）替代医学列表后，认为当中许多属伪科学，并提及到科学工作者、组织和科学决策团体成员所关注的问题，它评论说“尽管如此，替代医学的受欢迎程度似乎在增加[66]……美国医学院校中至少有60％课堂时间投入在替代疗法的教学中，这在科学界引起一定争议[66]。”有报告指，大学正在“越来越倾向于顺势疗法和补充医学，其为科学界所反对的‘伪科学’学位[67] 。”学者形容替代医学的学位为“伪科学学位[66][67][68]”、“反科学”以及“有害的”[69]。
  • 人体冷冻技术，以超低温保存在临床上已死亡的人体，并希望未来科技可以解冻及复生。目前并没有成功个案把已冷冻的人类大脑、人体或哺乳类动物解冻后可复生，也没有足够科学证据证明有复生的可能[70][71]。
  • 人智医学（英语：Anthroposophic medicine）：补充和替代医学的一种[72]，由鲁道夫·斯坦纳和伊达·韦格曼（英语：Ita Wegman）根据人智学的精神理念在20世纪20年代创立，强调以整全观对待健康，却不强调随机对照试验[73][74]，人智医学会配制与症状的“关键动力力量”（key dynamic forces）匹配的药物[75]，并且会准备各种稀释液调配，最后求诊者以外用、口服以及非口服的方式服用药物的方式，来达至整体上顺势的效果[76] 。人智医学的从业者一般不建议/建议推迟疫苗接种，以及使用抗生素和退热药[77][78][79]。诸罗伯特·托德·卡罗尔般的怀疑论者，把人智医学的原则比喻为交感巫术，即治疗性植物可通过它们的形态以及生理性的扭曲而被识别[80]卡罗尔和其他人表示该体系不是基于科学[80][81][82]。埃查德·恩斯特（英语：Edzard Ernst）认为，人智医学的功效还没有得到独立于它的哲学理念的全面科学分析证明，且没有基于证据的结论可以得出该体系的整体效用[83]。
  • 病毒派对：一种非常危险的另类医疗做法，透过参加病毒派对，希望可以借此感染相关病毒，而获得抗体[84][85]。
  • 应用肌肉动力学（英语：Applied kinesiology）：一种诊断方法，当中从业者会利用人手去为肌肉强度作测试，以此为根据去作出医疗诊断和处方治疗，支持者相信从业者可以通过外部的物理性质确定健康问题或缺乏哪种营养，如肌肉反应、姿势，或分析动作。各种疗法的基础是测试肌肉的无力度或动作的平滑性、并基于以下猜想——肌肉和器官之间有关的。例如从业者会给病人一手握住载有内含物的罐子，然后测试另一只手的肌肉力量；如果有很小的抵抗力，从业者便可宣称患者对该物质过敏[86]或疾病[87]科学并不支持某些国际学院要求应用肌肉动力学至标准诊断技术的主张[88]。脊骨神经医学的从业者往往会运用应用肌肉动力学，但自然疗法从业者、医生、牙医、营养师、物理治疗师、按摩治疗师、护士也可能运用应用肌肉动力学[87][89]。应用肌肉动力学不应与运动机能学（英语：Kinesiology）相混淆，运动机能学是人体运动的科学研究。
  • 左右脑分工理论: 一种认为左脑负责语言思考逻辑，右脑发挥创意及处理情感。不过，现代神经科学学者表明，这种左脑与右脑划分的方式并不科学。[90][91][92]
  • 人脑潜能：一种认为人类的脑部有接近90%没有开发或使用，因此有无限开发的潜能可以发挥。这种说法已被现代脑科学所推翻。事实上，一些研究显示，人脑的开发使用率已经接近100%。[93][94][95][96]
  • 商布德利帕德敏感症消除技术（英语：Nambudripad's Allergy Elimination Techniques）：从业者声称其是过敏和相关病症的一种替代诊治。现有的综述得出结论：该技术所使用的诊断技术是无效的[97][98][99][100][101][102][103][104]，一些医学协会建议不要以这种方式运用应用肌肉动力学[103][105][106][107][108][109]。一些探讨商布德利帕德敏感症消除技术的文献综述直接表明：缺乏任何证据支持它的有效性，且其主张是毫无根据的[104][110]。商布德利帕德敏感症消除技术的理论基础已被批评为缺乏科学依据[108][111]。澳亚临床免疫与过敏协会（英语：Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy）建议不要使用商布德利帕德敏感症消除技术[108]。
  • 贝茨法：由眼科医生威廉·贝茨开发的一套纠正方法，旨在“自然地”提高视力，它据称可消除眼外肌紧绷，以省去眼镜的需求[112]。1929年，联邦贸易委员会列举了贝茨所编写的书——《摘掉眼镜完美视力》的误导性宣传[113]，但相关投诉后来被驳回[114]。虽然有些人声称遵循了他的指导以后，视力的确有所改善，但贝茨关于视觉和调节的想法已遭到主流眼科和视光学界的反对[115][116][117][118][119]。
  • 生理节律：假设人的生理和行为会受到分别23、28、33天为一循环的体力、情绪和智力周期所控制。该体系假定，当智力周期曲线越过基线位或附近时（个体出生时），该人判断事物出错的机会会增加。并没有人发现任何与行动有关的生物物理机制，生物节律的预测能力并不比碰运气佳[6][120][121][122]。对于像昼夜节律般的生物学研究，请参见时间生物学。
  • 细胞记忆：一种假设认为身体本身便能够储存记忆，而不是只有大脑。支持者认为它是失忆后再回复记忆的根本原因[123]。这些回忆的特征通常是以身体一个或多个部分幻肢痛来表达——支持者认为这是身体回忆过去的创伤所致，细胞记忆的想法经常是与记忆的压抑联系起来，当中细胞会记忆乱伦或性虐待的经历，并通过身体感知回忆[123][124]。
  • 健脑操（英语：Brain Gym）：一项商业培训计划，声称只要实践者所进行的动作合乎要求，任何学习的困难都可以透过大脑中的新回路建立来克服。他们声称，重复26套健脑操动作能“激活大脑，优化其储存和提取信息的能力[125]。”，并声称健脑操是为了达至“身与心的融汇”而设，并能提高“集中力、记忆力、阅读能力、写作能力、组织能力、听力、身体协调性等能力”[126]。科学界已驳斥了其理论基础，并把它形容为伪科学[127][128][129][130]。有关健脑操的科学研究在经过同行评审后，发现一般情况下学业技能并无显著改善。它所声称的结果并没有考虑其他变量，比如安慰剂效应、休息和运动的好处。其创始人保罗·丹尼森也承认，许多健脑操的声称并不是基于优良的科学（good science），而是基于他的“直觉”[131]。
  • 脊骨神经医学：一种替代医学实践，侧重于寻找脊髓的半脱位（英语：Vertebral subluxation）（一套属于脊骨神经医学的症状和体征），并以调整脊髓的方式治疗。许多现代脊骨神经医学从业者仅仅针对机械性功能障碍，并提供健康和生活方式辅导[132][133]。然而，许多从业者根据丹尼尔·大卫·帕尔马（英语：Daniel David Palmer）和巴特利特·约书亚·帕尔默（英语：B. J. Palmer）的活力论作出实践，坚持认为所有或许多的器质性疾病都是脊髓功能障碍的结果，如脊椎半脱位或先天的知能（英语：Innate intelligence）（一种猜想能量）的流动受到损害[134][135] 。这些观点并不是基于科学，以及目前仍没有强而有力的研究能化解脊骨神经医学和主流医学之间的历史矛盾[136][137][138][139]。最近的系统综述显示脊骨神经医学可能适度有益于非特异性下背痛的管理[140][141][142]。脊骨神经医学的有效性尚未根据循证医学的任何原则证实[143]。报告中亦提及“符合轻微的定义”的副作用，如脊柱推拿后可能出现的神经系统受损，尤其是上脊柱推拿，其发生频率为33——61％之间，脊骨神经医学的大多数副作用都是轻微的，如轻度酸痛、头晕，头昏、浅头晕、头痛、麻木感或上肢酸麻；很少观察到但亦有发生的严重并发症则包括蛛网膜下腔出血、椎动脉夹层（英语：Vertebral artery dissection）或是脊髓病变[144][145][146][147][148]。
    • 先天的知能（英语：Innate intelligence）：一种假想能量，一些脊骨神经医学从业者认为它的责任是流动以维持患者的健康。花大部分时间研究脊骨神经医学的临床心理学家约瑟夫·基廷（英语：Joseph C. Keating Jr.）表示：“一直以来，我们的‘一种原因，一种治疗’这种说辞，我们应该预料到被更广泛的健康科学界嘲笑。脊骨神经医学不能两者兼得。我们的理论不能同时教条式地构建生机论及科学化，帕尔默的知能的目的性、自觉性和刚性应予驳回[149]。”
    • 椎骨半脱位（英语：Vertebral subluxation）：脊骨神经医学的用语描述先天的知能所流动的部位病变或推测由脊椎病变引起的神经肌肉骨胳病变和内脏功能失调，科学共识并不支持脊骨神经医学的椎骨半脱位存在[150]。
  • 结肠清洗疗法（英语：Colon cleansing）：几种替代医学，旨在从结肠和肠道除去粪便和不明毒素。从业者相信，腐烂粪便积聚于大肠壁，并且它们窝藏寄生虫或致病肠道菌群，造成非特异性症状和健康欠佳。这种“自体中毒”的假设是基于古埃及人和希腊人的医疗信念，而在20世纪初名声扫地[151][152]。
  • 颅骶疗法（英语：Craniosacral therapy）：治疗师把他们的手放在病人的头骨上，使得他们能够调节脑脊液的节奏[153]。颅骶疗法的治疗师声称颅骶疗法可以治疗精神紧张、颈部和背部疼痛、偏头痛、颞下颌关节功能紊乱（英语：Temporomandibular joint dysfunction）以及慢性疼痛(如纤维肌痛)[154][155][156]。在1999年进行的系统回顾“找不到有效的科学证据表明，颅骶疗法提供予患者任何好处。”并指出，“现有的低等证据是从实验设计差的健康结果研究中衍生”和“已有报告指出患者在疗法后损伤头部的事件[157]。”颅骶疗法已被很多不同的研究人员定性为伪科学或在研究人员中的名声较差[158][159][160][161][162][163]。
  • 水晶疗法（英语：Crystal healing）：相信水晶有治疗作用。一度在前科学(pre-scientific)和土著人之间流行，它的知名度因20世纪70年代的新纪元运动复兴[164][165]。
  • 排毒（英语：Detoxification (alternative medicine)）：排毒是替代医学范围内的一种实践，声称可以去除身体内的“毒素”——在身体积累的有害物质，据称在短期或长期内对个人健康有不良影响。许多主流媒体网站提供关于这种实践的文章，但是缺乏科学依据证明存在毒素及其危害或去除技术的功效。
  • 耳烛：一种替代医学实践，声称使用空心蜡烛将一端插入外耳道，另一端点燃，可以改善整体健康和幸福感。医学研究表明，这种实践是无效的，并有可能令人受伤，虽然可能性较低。一项调查访问了122名耳鼻喉科医师，发现在其职业生涯中，共有21例病例耳朵因此而受伤[166]。此过程不会帮助清除耳垢或毒性物质[167]。
  • 接地气疗法（英语：Earthing therapy）：一种疗法，声称通过直接与地面或与连接到电气接地的装置物理接触可以缓解疼痛、令睡眠质素更佳并帮助缓解疾病的发炎症状[168]。据称，地球拥有过剩的电子，但由于绝缘鞋和地面覆盖物的关系令人们缺少，与大地接触能把其过量的电子提供予身体，然后充当抗氧化剂[169]。
  • 电磁波过敏症：“患者”报告对暴露水平低于规定安全标准的电场和磁场或不同频率的电磁辐射敏感。症状并不一致，但可以包括头痛、疲劳、睡眠困难和类似的非特异性症状[170]。研究发现，患者的不适与隐藏的辐射来源无关[171][172]和“无科学依据证明暴露于电磁场及电磁波过敏症之间目前存在的任何联系[173]。”
  • 信仰疗法：通过诸如祈祷和按手礼等行为治愈疾病。据观察所得信仰疗法没有带来超过安慰剂预期的肉体上的得益[6][174][175]。
  • 健康手链及各种疗法饰品——声称改善健康、愈合或提高穿用者的“气”，如离子手链（英语：Ionized jewelry）、全息手链（英语：Hologram bracelet）以及磁性饰品。制造商所声称的任何效果没有被独立来源证实[176][177]。
  • 顺势疗法：相信某物质能在健康的人身上，引起病人患某病时的病症，此物质就能治疗该病症。这些准备工作通常是就以上一点稀释制剂，任何治疗方法可能也是差不多[178]。顺势疗法的研究在很大程度上是负面的或不确定的[179][180][181][182] 。顺势疗法的原则没有已证实的科学依据[183][184][185][186][187][188][189]。
  • 虹膜学（英语：Iridology）：医疗诊断手段，其支持者相信能够通过仔细检查虹膜的标记和图案来识别和诊断健康问题。从业人员划分虹膜为80-90个区域，其中每一个分别连系到特定的身体区域或器官。此连系尚未经过科学验证，疾病检测既不是讲究也不是具体的[190][191][192]。由于虹膜纹理是一个表型特征，怀孕期间的在母体内发展并且出生后保持不变(这使得虹膜生物识别有用处)，虹膜学几乎是不可能成功的。
  • 肠漏综合症（英语：Leaky gut syndrome）：一个在替代医学中拟议的状态，有害物质从肠道壁外面进入的通道，被提出作为许多状态的原因，包括多发性硬化症和自闭症。肠漏综合症是一项已被称为伪科学的宣称[193]。据英国国家健康服务（英语：National Health Service (England)）所指出，这个理论是模糊且未经证实的[194]。一些怀疑论者和科学家说，治疗肠漏综合症的市场是被误导或故意欺诈的一个实例[194]。
  • 闪电般的过程（英语：The Lightning Process）：自称是从整骨疗法衍生的系统——神经语言规划及生活辅导[195]。支持者声称，该过程可以对一系列的疾病和病症产生积极影响，包括肌痛性脑炎，但是疗效没有科学证据证明[196]。闪电般的过程的设计者菲尔·帕克(Phill Parker)表明，慢性疲劳症候群是中枢神经系统和自主神经系统失调的结果，闪电般的过程旨在解决这些神经系统的失调，帮助打破“肾上腺素循环”，让系统的应激反应维持在一个高的水平[196]。
  • 磁疗：使用磁场来正面地影响健康的实践。虽然磁铁和磁场有合法的医疗用途，但在磁疗使用的磁场强度太低，不足以实现任何生理变化，使用的方法亦没有科学有效性[6][197][198]。
  • 阿育吠陀：传统阿育吠陀是扎根于古印度5000年历史的另类医疗实践，基于心灵——身体的一套信念[199][200]。人的意识不平衡或压力被认为是疾病的原因[199]。患者按着体质类型划分(三种doshas(能量元素)被认为是控制身心和谐，以其衡量个人的体质)和治疗的目的是恢复心灵——身体系统的平衡[199][200] 。长期以来，它一直是印度医疗保健的主要传统体系[200]。它已在印度的学院和学校被制度化，但无证从业者依然普遍[201]。像其他传统知识一样，很多有关阿育吠陀的知识已失传；在西方，目前与阿育吠陀有关的实践是玛赫西·马赫什·瑜珈部分基于阿育吠陀的启发[202] ，把其与传统的超觉静坐混合。在美国，阿育吠陀最引人注目的倡导者是狄巴克·乔布拉，他声称阿育吠陀是基于量子神秘主义[202]。
  • 自然疗法：或称自然医学，基于相信活力论的一种替代医学，其假定一种被称为生命能量或生命力的特殊能量的存在，其会引导身体的活动如新陈代谢、繁殖、生长和适应[203]。自然疗法已被定性为伪科学[204][205]。它尤其因没被证明、被证伪或危险的治疗方法而被人批评[206][207][208][209]。自然的方法以及不是人造或合成的化学品不一定更安全或更有效；任何有效果的治疗也可能有有害的副作用[152][205][210][211]。
  • 骨科手法医学（英语：Osteopathic manipulative medicine）或整骨手法医学：整骨医学的核心技术，基于安德鲁·泰勒·史迪尔构想的理念，认为身体拥有的自我调节机制可能可以通过控制或移动骨骼、肌腱和肌肉得到充分利用。它被提议治疗许多人类疾病，包括帕金森氏病、胰腺炎和肺炎，但只发现对下背痛有效[212][213][214]。长期以来，人们一直认为它是基于“伪科学教条”[215]。美国计算生物学家和电脑科学家史蒂芬·扎尔茨贝格（英语：Steven Salzberg）提到整骨医学院校教授的整骨手法医学为“伪科学中的实践训练”[216]
  • 鲁尔夫治疗法（英语：Rolfing）：由爱达·鲁尔夫（英语：Ida Rolf）(1896–1979) 所创，从业者声称能够摆脱人体肌肉层的创伤记忆[217]，没有任何证据表明鲁尔夫治疗法对任何疾病有效[218]。
  • 触摸治疗（英语：Therapeutic touch）：活力论的一种，医师或护士[26][219]将他或她的手放在患者上和围绕以“重新调整”或“平衡”假想的能量场[27]。Cochrane评价的结论是“没有证据表明[触摸治疗]促进急性伤口愈合[220]。”并没有人发现能量场的生物物理基础[221][222]。
  • 锡箔帽：锡箔帽是从一片或多片铝箔制成的帽子或普通的内含箔头饰，相信戴上它可以保护大脑，免受电磁场、精神控制和读心术的威胁。目前没有发现无线电频与防止随后健康状况不佳的锡箔帽间有任何关系。
  • 中国传统医学：起源于中国的传统医疗系统，作为一种替代医学实践，遍及世界大部分地区。它包含基于道家的宇宙观元素[223]，认为人体比解剖术语有更多的功能和生命力[224][225]。中国传统医学遵循阴阳的原则判断健康与疾病，并归因于能量的流动平衡或不平衡——气[226][227]。诊断方法仅仅只靠身体外部，包括在人体六点切诊、检查病人的舌头、和一次病人访谈；医师间诊断一致性较差[224][228][229][230]。中国传统医学描述的人体功能和结构与现代医学根本不同，尽管一些规程和补救措施已经承诺在科学方面进行调查[226][231]。
    • 针灸：用细针刺激穴位和平衡经络，没有已知的解剖学和组织学基础证明穴位经络的存在[228][232]，有些针灸师把它们看作是功能性，而不是结构性的实体，其在患者的评估和护理中有用[226][233][234]。干针（英语：Dry needling）是不考虑中医知识的针灸治疗。自20世纪后期，针灸一直是活跃的科研主题[235]，它的作用和应用在医学研究人员和临床医生间仍然存在争议[235]。因为它是一个治疗过程，而不是一种丸剂，故对照研究的设计是具有挑战性的，像手术和其他治疗过程一样[226][235][236][237][238]。一些学术回顾的结论是针灸的作用主要是安慰剂[239][240]，及其他则发现可能适用于特定条件下的功效[235][241][242][243]。
    • 拔罐：古代中国的一种替代医学，在局部皮肤产生吸力；从业者认为这可以促进血液流动去促使康复[245]。其会使用热（火）或机械设备（手或电泵）产生吸力。拔罐的对照试验只有一个已进行且它并没有表现任何缓解疼痛的功效。一本由英国科普作家西蒙·辛格和Edzard Ernst写的书声称，没有证据证明拔罐对任何医疗条件产生有利影响[246]。
    • 经络：气血流通的渠道，与几个脏腑器官成对[224][247]。没有已知的解剖学和组织学基础证明穴位和经络的存在[228][232]。
    • 艾灸：应用于点燃的艾蒿或艾条刺激皮肤穴位
    • 气：流动的生命能量，须平衡它保持健康。气从未被直接观测到，也与科学所使用的能量概念无关[248][249][250]。
    • 中药本草：中国传统医学所使用的生药。这包括许多植物的一部分或整株，如人参和枸杞，及更奇异的如海马。制剂一般混合多种成分，与基于物理特性如味道或形状选择，或据中国传统医学的脏腑[251] 。大多数制剂没有得到严格的评估或没有功效迹象[231][252][253]。研究这些制剂中潜在活性成分的生药学研究是活跃的，虽然应用并不总是符合中国传统医学[254]。
    • 脏腑：功能性器官，其储存阴阳和蓄存精气[224]。这些器官不是基于解剖学。
  • 尿疗法：饮用自己的未稀释尿液或顺势疗法的尿液药剂，据称能治疗多种疾病，其是基于伪科学[255]。
  • 自闭症和疫苗之间的联系：其中疫苗被指责引起自闭症谱系障碍、引发它们或加重他们，其已被定性为伪科学[256]。许多流行病学的研究发现缺乏证据表明MMR疫苗或含硫柳汞疫苗和自闭症的对应关系[257]。因此，医学研究所已经得出结论，这些品种的疫苗和自闭症之间没有因果关系[258]。
  • 活力论：该学说认为生命的活动不受物理和化学定律所规限，某种程度上是生命自行决定，《伪科学百科全书》指出“今天，活力论是许多伪科学卫生系统的基础，其声称疾病是由人体的生命力紊乱或失衡造成。”“活力论者宣称自己是科学的，但实际上他们拒绝科学方法，其原因和作用基本上是假设的。他们经常认为主观感受会更加有力于客观物理现实[259]。”

金融

阴谋论

更多信息：阴谋论
  • 脑控：一种认为世界上已有政府或科研机构，发明了以电脑或电磁辐射，远程遥控受害者大脑思维意识和情绪的阴谋论，目前没有证据证明让技术出现的可能性，从目前的电脑科学及脑科学技术来看是绝无可能。[269][270][271][272]

社会科学

心理学

  • 电击法治疗网络成瘾: 一套无效且危险的方式治疗网络成瘾。
  • 依附疗法（英语：Attachment therapy）：一套有可能致命的临床介入[273]，并是一套较激进的育儿技巧的名称，亦即实践者会冷血地对儿童实行“剥夺和身心虐待，以寻求自己想要的效果[274]。”最常见的施行时间是大人因宣泄愤怒和恶化的情绪而剥夺孩子。当中最常见的是“重生”，亦即把孩子被紧紧包裹在毯子内，然后模拟从产道出生：鼓励孩子努力拼搏、推动和挤压他/她自己去模拟宫缩[6]。尽管实践的名字不是基于传统依附理论，它的原则亦在主流发展心理学中毫无根据可言[275]。在2006年，它是美国虐待儿童问题专业协会的关键主题[276]。并非所有依附疗法都是强制性的，且自从康丹丝·纽梅克（英语：Candace Newmaker）的案例后，该领域的领导人一直朝着减少胁迫行为的方向前进[276]。
  • 洗脑：一种思想灌输的理论过程，其会导致被洗脑者的自主权减少、失去独立思考能力、关系和信念被破坏。在此情景下，洗脑是指基本信仰和价值观被非自愿地再教育。洗脑一词已被应用到战术、心理或其他方面，被视为可以颠覆并控制一个人的思想、行为、情感或决策。1983年，美国心理协会（APA）要求玛格丽特·辛格（英语：Margaret Singer）主持了一个特别小组，其叫APA说服和控制中的欺骗和间接引入技术专责小组（英语：APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control），研究洗脑或者“强制性说服”是否的确在“邪教”的招聘中发挥作用，美国心理协会发现，洗脑的理论并没有经验证明，并驳回专责小组的报告，因为报告“缺乏必要的科学严谨性，即使是批评态度，美国心理协会的出版许可必须有科学严谨性[277][278]。”否决备忘录连带着从外部评审员本杰明·贝特·郝拉米（英语：Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi）和杰弗里·D·费舍尔(Jeffery D. Fisher)寄来的两封信件，这些信件批评“洗脑”为不可识别的理论概念，以及批评辛格的推理存在缺陷，“近乎荒谬。”[279]
  • 性倾向治疗：有时会称为性倾向修复(reparative therapy)，其目的是改变一个非异性恋者的性倾向，使他们不再是同性恋或双性恋[280]。美国精神医学学会界定性倾向修复疗法是“心理治疗……基于同性恋本身是一种精神障碍的前提或‘病人’应该改变他们同性恋倾向的假设”[281][282][283]
  • 笔迹学：基于相信人格特质会不自觉地影响字迹形态的心理测试——某些类型的人会在用笔时表现出某些怪癖。字迹分析不能提供较猜测更高的人格准确度，神经科学家巴里·贝叶斯滕（英语：Barry Beyerstein）把其比喻成交感巫术[6][26][284][285][286][287]。
  • 超心理学：研究超常的心理和精神现象，包括濒死经验、通灵现象、灵魂出体、宗教经验、前世回溯、轮回研究等。目的希望透过研究这些超心理现象证实超自然的存在、前世的存在、来世的存在、或宗教和神秘学的论据。不过，现时的心理科学共识是，没有证据证明这些心理现象可以提供足够证据证实超自然现象、前世或来世的存在，也没有科学证据证明这些现象能引证宗教和神秘学的论据。[288][289][290] [291]

宗教及神秘学

宗教和神秘学，本身并不是伪科学，只是属于非科学的范畴。但是，一些具宗教或神秘学概念的学说，包装成科学学说，以科学化的语言诠释，但没有以科学要求的规范下研究的，或缺乏具体科学上要求的证据，或证据不被主流科学界接受的，或不具可证伪性的，则往往被视作伪科学。

例子包括：

参见

参考文献

  1. ^ Pollak 2002.
  2. ^ O'Neill 2008.
  3. ^ Rosenbaum 2009
  4. ^ Hummels 2009.
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