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Four female prisoners in beige uniforms seated at desks . A teacher is supervising one of them.
美国联邦监狱里的一节课

监狱教育是指一切在监狱内进行的教育活动。课程包括基础识字课、中学等级课程、职业教育和高等教育。其他如康复训练、体育活动、手工美术等一类的课程也属于监狱教育。通常来说，监狱系统提供、管理和资助这些教育课程，尽管如此，囚犯还是可能需要支付远程教育项目的费用。各国监狱教育的历史和现状差异很大。

从世界范围来看，囚犯的平均教育水平低于普通大众。监狱教育的目的往往是让囚犯在出狱后更容易就业。不论是管理监狱中的教育项目，还是参加这些课程，都不是件容易的事。人手不足、预算短缺、教育资源、电脑数量匮乏以及囚犯转移难度大，都是常见的困难。由于过去失败的教育经历或是缺乏学习动力，囚犯可能不愿参加这些教育课程。

研究一致表明，监狱教育是降低累犯率的有效方法，继而有效减少政府未来在监狱上的支出。据估计，在英国，政府每在监狱教育上花费一英镑，纳税人就能节省两英镑以上；在美国，政府每在监狱教育上花费一美元，纳税人就能节省四到五美元。尽管监狱教育好处多多，但许多国家的监狱教育普及率仍然很低。有人试图为监狱教育申请更多资金，但是都被驳回了。反对者认为，监狱教育就是浪费金钱，囚犯不值得享受这些教育。

History

Europe

The history and availability of prison education in Europe varies greatly between countries. Nordic countries have a long history of providing education to prisoners, and Sweden in particular is considered to be a pioneer in the field.[1] Prison education became mandatory for inmates under 35 in 1842, and vocational education can be traced back to at least 1874, when the Uppsala County prison hired a carpenter to teach inmates woodworking.[2] In Denmark, juvenile offenders have had access to education since the 1850s, and educational programmes became mandatory for them in 1930. Adult prisons have had educational programmes since 1866, and legislation requiring all inmates under the age of 30 to participate in educational courses was implemented in 1952.[3] Norway opened its first prison to focus on education as a form of rehabilitation in 1851.[4] By 1875, all eight prisons in the country were providing education to inmates,[5] and by the end of the century, legislation was in effect ensuring that any prisoner who had not completed primary and lower secondary schooling should do so while in prison.[4] As of 2007, every prison in Norway has a school for inmates.[5] In Finland, legislation was adopted in 1866 which ensured that all prisoners would receive primary education, though the implementation of the order faced practical difficulties. A more successful education reform was implemented in 1899, which remained unchanged until 1975.[6] However Iceland, which as of 2011 averaged only 137 prisoners in the country,[7] only began implementing education programmes in 1971.[8]

Between 1939 and 1975, while under the rule of Francisco Franco, prisons in Spain were infamous for their harsh conditions and levels of repression. Attitudes later softened, with the 1978 Constitution declaring that prisons should be oriented at re-education rather than forced labor.[9] While university access existed, a 1992 Human Rights Watch report found that most prisons only offered basic education and some vocational training, and female inmates had less access to education than males.[10] As of 2018, the National University of Distance Education is the only institution allowed to provide university education to inmates.[11] In 1976, laws in Italy clarified that prisoners were entitled to university education. However, prisoners were unable to complete courses as correctional facilities neither provided entry for teachers, or leave for students to complete exams. Prisoners were only effectively allowed to study at university from 1986 when laws were relaxed, and further rights were enabled in 2000, greatly improving educational access. Many partnerships between prisons and universities were established between the early 2000s and mid 2010s.[11]

The first significant development of prison education in England was Robert Peel's Parliamentary Gaol Act of 1823, which called for reading and writing classes in all prisons.[12] While prison staff in the 1850s recognised the importance of basic literacy, they opposed giving prisoners any form of higher education on the grounds that education itself would not provide any "moral elevation".[13] The Prison Act of 1877 is considered to have established the prison system that remained in effect until the 1990s, which only offered education of a "narrow and selective kind".[12] In 1928, the majority of prisons in the UK were still only offering the most basic education courses.[14] By 1958, while the number of educational staff in prisons had increased, there had been no other significant advancements in prison education. Education programmes did not improve until 1992, when the decision was made to outsource educational instruction on a competitive basis. More than 150 organizations applied, and by 1994, there were 45 educational providers across 125 prisons, providing various forms of education including secondary and tertiary.[12]

Attempts to rehabilitate prisoners in Russia were made in 1819, possibly for the first time in the country's history. Reforms included instructing them in "piety and good morals", though this proved impossible due to the cramped conditions, extreme poverty and lack of other services. Instead, general improvements to conditions were first made, after which "religious and moral education" were gradually introduced.[15] In 1918, it was recommended that children in Russian prisons should receive education alongside punishment. However, few educational programmes were implemented, because of the competing agendas of various jurisdictions and agencies.[16] In the 1920s, efforts were made within the Gulag prison camps to eradicate illiteracy. Almost all the camps had classes on "political education", and some also had classes such as natural science, history of culture and foreign languages.[17]

North America

 
A prison literacy class for African Americans in New Orleans, 1937

In the United States, prisoners were given religious instruction by chaplains in the early 19th century, and secular prison education programmes were first developed in order to help inmates to read Bibles and other religious texts. The first major education programme aimed at rehabilitating prisoners was launched in 1876.[18] Zebulon Brockway, the superintendent of Elmira Reformatory in New York, was the initial person to implement such a programme. He believed prison education would "discipline the mind and fit it to receive ... the thoughts and principles that constitute their possessors good citizens".[18] By 1900, the states of Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois and Minnesota had adopted the "Elmira system" of education,[19] and by the 1930s, educational programmes could be found in most prisons.[18] Tertiary education programmes did not appear until much later. In 1960, only nine states were offering college-level education to inmates; by 1983, such programmes were available in most states.[18]

Support and availability of educational programmes has fluctuated in the US as policy has switched between focusing on rehabilitation and crime control.[20] Between 1972 and 1995, inmates in the US were able to apply for Pell Grants, a subsidy programme run by the US federal government that provides funding for students.[21] However, in 1994 Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, which denied Pell Grants to anyone who is incarcerated.[22] As a result, by 2005 only about a dozen prisons were offering post-secondary education, compared to 350 in the early 1990s;[21] the number in New York dropped from 70 to 4.[23] In 2015, President Barack Obama created a pilot programme that allowed a limited number of inmates to receive Pell grants. More than 200 colleges in 47 states subsequently expressed interest in running educational programmes for prisoners.[23] The Pell ban was repealed in December 2020, reinstating eligibility for federal financial aid to thousands of incarcerated people in the US.[24]

The development of prison education within Canada has paralleled that of the US. Royal Commissions in 1914 and 1936 both recommended that work programmes be replaced, at least to some extent, by rehabilitative programmes including education.[18] However, education programmes did not become commonplace until the mid 1940s.[18]

Caribbean

A prison system in Barbados was established in 1945. Education programmes were officially introduced into it in 1956, and focused on basic literacy and numeracy, though female prisoners were not allowed to participate until the Prison Reform Act of 1961–66 was passed. Inmates over the age of 25 were not allowed to participate in programmes until 1990, when Barbados adopted the mandate of the World Conference on Education For All. The mandate also saw the offering of vocational and secondary education in the prison system.[25] The Dominican Republic underwent a prison reform beginning in 2003, with basic literacy becoming compulsory at nearly half the country's 35 prisons; if inmates refuse to participate they were denied privileges such as visitation. As of 2012, 36 of the 268 prisoners at Najayo women's prison were completing university degrees in either law or psychology.[26]

Outside access to, and information regarding the conditions of prisons in Cuba following its political revolution in the 1950s is limited. The government permitted limited access for some journalists in 2013, but it is unclear to what extent those facilities may have been representative of the country's prisons as a whole. Private interviews were not permitted, but officials highlighted the system's work and study programmes, including the teaching of skilled trades such as carpentry.[27][28] According to one 1988 report by the Institute for Policy Studies, prisoners were provided with education up to a ninth grade level, inmates were provided with training in technical skills and as much as 85% of the population worked. Political reeducation also played a major role in Cuban penology.[29]

South America

Education opportunities in prison are considered to be generally poorer in South America in comparison to Europe and North America.[26] Resources for education are comparatively lacking due to rising incarceration rates and prison overcrowding, partly a by-product of the war on drugs.[30] Prison education programmes began in Argentina in the 1950s. Although details about programmes and their effectiveness is limited, the lack of available data is attributed to corruption within the prison system, alongside poor living conditions and high levels of violence.[31] A law was enacted in 1996 ensuring all prisoners with less than the compulsory nine years of basic schooling be able to participate in educational programmes. Due to administrative constraints, on average only about 25% of eligible prisoners participated in these programmes as of 2010.[32]

As of 2009, Brazil was considered to have one of the most progressive policies on prison education in South America.[33] In 1984, the National Congress of Brazil passed a prison reform law, recognising inmates' right to education and other services, though the law has not been effectively implemented.[33] As of 1998, some prisons were not offering education at all, while others only had "a fraction" of inmates studying; about 23% of inmates at São Paulo State Penitentiary were enrolled in some form of education;[34] access to education was "more easily available" in female prisons.[35] A 2002 report by the Federal Court of Accounts estimated that over 90% of the federal budget for prisons was spent on construction of new jails, and the funding for programmes including education "was not used [for] consistent policies but rather punctual and dispersed initiatives proposed by the states".[33] As of 2004, it is estimated that less than 20% of Brazil's 400,000 inmates had access to education.[33]

Oceania

 
An educational classroom at a prison in New South Wales, Australia, c. 1900

The first formal education programme to be implemented in the Australian state of New South Wales was at Darlinghurst Gaol in 1862, when a schoolmaster was hired to provide elementary and moral education to any prisoner who wished to attend. Prior to this one of the prisoners had been providing educational lessons to other inmates.[36] By the early 1900s, basic literacy programmes were commonplace throughout Australian prisons,[37] and by the 1950s, all major prisons in the country were offering some form of education and training programmes, though no more than 15 to 20% of inmates at any given prison could participate in educational programmes at one time.[38]

The Senate Employment, Education and Training References Committee produced the Senate Report of the Inquiry into Education and Training in Correctional Facilities in 1996.[37] The report stated that the history of prison education in Australia "could fairly be described as a disgrace", with non-existent or poor facilities containing deficient and out-dated curricula and resources.[39] It made several recommendations on how to improve prison education, including the development of a national strategy. In 2001, a national strategy was launched, and by 2006, all states and territories were offering some form of tertiary education to inmates.[37] Each state and territory, however, maintains control over its own prison education systems; there is no national system[37][40] leading to differences in the way education is offered. For example, inmates in the Australian Capital Territory have been allowed to have laptop computers in their cells for educational purposes since 2006, though as of 2020 this is not available for inmates in New South Wales. Accordingly, certain educational and rehabilitation programmes that require a computer cannot be offered there.[41][42][43]

According to the New Zealand Annual Review of Education, the availability and quality of prison education in the country decreased significantly between 1959 and 2005, as government policy shifted from prisons focusing on rehabilitation to prisons focusing on punishment. A 2005 Ombudsman's report stated there were "low levels of rehabilitative and productive activities" for prisoners in New Zealand.[44]

亚洲

众所周知，道德教育和智力教育的缺失引起了犯罪。 现代监狱的原则是让犯人忏悔，让无知、丑恶、没有道德的囚犯成为好公民，因此，道德和智力教育是必不可少的。
—中国官方监狱手册，约30年代[45]

日本的监狱教育至少可以追溯到1871年，当时东京的一所监狱引入了实践伦理讲座。[46] 1881 年，监狱系统开始大规模开设阅读和写作课程。到十九世纪八十年代末，人们认为道德课程对囚犯来说最为重要，到了九十年代的时候，人们视教育为监狱制度中最重要的问题之一。[47] 1910 年，日本监狱法规定，必须给所有少年犯以及任何被认为有必要接受教育的成年囚犯提供教育。法律规定，监狱每天都要留出两到四个小时来用于教育。[48] 1952年，各监狱开始函授教育。1955年，松本少年监狱内设立了一所高中，旨在让未完成义务教育的少年犯继续接受教育。[49] 截至2018年，它仍然是日本境内唯一一所设在监狱里的高中。并且日本的男性囚犯只要提出申请，都可转去那里。[50][51]

上世纪二十年代，在中华民国成立后，中国的监狱制度也发生了一些变化。当时有批评称，对囚犯的教育不够充分，因此，监狱系统将改造的主要方法从宗教和道德层面的教育转向了学识教育和苦力劳动。[52] 国民党政府付出了相当大的努力来开发效果显著、形式多样的教育课程。除了识字和算术之外，课程设置还包括音乐作曲教学、道德教育、儒家思想以及爱国主义和政治思想学习。到了 20世纪30年代，监狱里有关国民党政治理念的教育显着增加。1981年，中华人民共和国将监狱教育纳入国民教育事业，极大地提高了服刑人员接受教育的机会。[53]


报告显示，印度早在 19 世纪就要求建立监狱教育，而印度当时的监狱主要侧重于惩罚性措施。 1983年，虽然监狱中已经设有普通课程和职业课程，但是这些课程教师不足，也没有足够的资金来维续这些课，课程中提供的职业培训类型也已经过时。[54] 英迪拉·甘地国立开放大学(IGNOU) 在印度的监狱教育中发挥着重要作用。 1994 年，它在蒂哈尔监狱开设了学习中心，是印度第一所在监狱开设学习中心的大学。截止到 2010 年为止，IGNOU 已设有 52 个监狱学习中心，约有 1,500 名学生。其他几所大学也有在印度的监狱中开展教育项目，但是由于学生只有在付费后才能参加课程，所以入学率仍然相对较低。 2010 年，IGNOU 与内政部合作，开始向囚犯提供免费教育。[55]

Africa

 
Nelson Mandela studied for his Bachelor of Laws while imprisoned on Robben Island.[56]

Prison education is generally less well-established throughout Africa in comparison to the Western world.[57] The first prison in Nigeria was established in 1872, however, as of 2010, no formal education programme had ever been implemented by the Nigerian government;[58][59] in 1986, one prison launched organised educational programmes though they were run and funded by inmates.[60] Following the death of de facto Nigerian President Sani Abacha in 1998, many political prisoners were released, bringing considerable media attention to the "grim conditions" they faced; prison in Nigeria was seen as purely punitive, with little to no resources given for infrastructure and rehabilitation programmes, like education. The provision of education was varied from prison to prison, though typically offered nothing better than informal apprenticeships in trades necessary to keep prisons operational.[59] However, by 2016, the National Open University of Nigeria had established training centers at six Nigerian prisons, and offers inmates a 50% discount on all tuition fees.[61]

In 1961, South Africa began holding criminal and political prisoners in a jail on Robben Island. Inmates were encouraged to study when the prison opened, and education programmes to ensure all inmates were literate when initiated. Only inmates whose families could afford to pay for tuition fees were permitted to participate, and access to education improved and then regressed with the prison's ever changing policy; by the end of the 1960s, programmes were restricted on the concern they were improving the inmates' morale too much. Historians also speculate the prison system was concerned that inmates were becoming better educated than the guards.[62] Inmates were able to undertake correspondence courses through the University of London International Programmes; Nelson Mandela completed a Bachelor of Laws while in custody, though his educational privileges were revoked for four years after staff discovered he was writing an autobiography, something which was forbidden at the time.[56] Efforts by inmates to educate themselves politically were significantly hampered by the prison's policy to forbid inmates access to newspapers, radios and television. These restrictions were lifted in the late 1970s; Jeff Radebe headed a political education programme at the prison in the 1980s.[63] As of 1993, education was a privilege rather than one of the inmates' rights. Basic literacy courses were provided by paid inmates, rather than qualified teachers, and higher levels of education were only available to inmates who could afford correspondence courses.[64]

With funding from the United Nations Development Programme, a basic literacy programme for inmates was launched in Ghana in 2003, and by 2008, all prisons were offering education to inmates, though the programme's effectiveness is severely affected by a lack of resources.[65] For many years, the only prison education offered in Morocco was farming skills at the country's agricultural prisons, though a 2014 report found that educational opportunities had been increasing and that literacy, vocational and other educational programmes were being offered.[66]

可供选择的课程

 
 
不论是基本的算数（上图）还是职业培训（下图）都可算作监狱教育。

监狱课程既设有基础识字课程和中学水平课程，也有职业教育和高等教育课程。像是手工美术或业余戏剧创作这类教囚犯新技能的非正式活动，也可以被视为是教育形式。[67] 同样，一些国家将康复项目或体育教育都视为教育课程，而另一些国家则不然。[68] 监狱内的教育项目通常由监狱本身资助，可能是各个监狱独自运营或是外包给别的供应商。初级教育、中等教育以及职业教育通常是免费的，但有些国家要求囚犯或其家属支付函授课程的费用。 在2012年，在28个接受调查的欧洲国家中，有 15 个国家向囚犯提供免费的远程教育，剩下的13 个国家则要求囚犯必须支付所有相关费用。只有一些特定课程在某些情况下是免费的。在丹麦，监狱里小学和初中低年级水平的函授课程是免费的，但是更高等级课程部分的学费必须由囚犯支付。[68] 许多监狱规定，教育课程应侧重于基本读写技能，[69] 这就导致有些监狱不提供任何更高水平的教育。[70] 有人反对说，这样的举措不能让囚犯学习其他技能，[71] 并且他们觉得这样会误导人们相信只掌握最基本技能的人以后就会金盆洗手了。[72][73]

英国的囚犯和普通大众一样，都有权获得政府大学生贷款，[68] 澳大利亚的囚犯也有同等权利。[74] 在英国，无力承担远程教育费用的囚犯可以向囚犯教育信托基金等慈善团体申请助学金。[75] 在澳大利亚和英国，还押候审或住院的囚犯没有资格进行教育学习，[70][76] 波兰也是如此。[77] 然而，挪威和芬兰不单独关押还押候审人员，他们有权享受与普通囚犯相同的教育机会。在丹麦和瑞典，还押候审犯人有权接受一些教育课程，但是课程选择比别的囚犯少一些。[78]

挑战

许多主流教学实践都直接应用到了监狱教育中。常识教学通常被认为是最有效的，虽然监狱里的规章制度可能会妨碍其实施。[79] 监狱教育计划被认为是刑事司法系统充分合作和提供有意义的学习经历的真诚努力之间的“微妙平衡之举”。例如，虽然老师可能希望给囚犯提供持续的帮助，但监狱可能禁止囚犯在课后与老师联系，以获得持续的反馈和学习上的帮助。[80] 在一些监狱中，可能有规定说教师不能用囚犯自己的名字称呼他们，而是要称他们为“罪犯”。这样的做法阻碍了教师和学生之间信任的建立，而信任往往是成功教育的一个重要因素。[81]

在监狱中开展和参与教育项目还存在许多其他障碍。囚犯年龄、教育水平或工作经历方面的差异都是老师在授课时会面对的挑战。[82] 由于儿童的学业和情感需求不同，少年监狱也存在类似的挑战。[83] 在监狱里，安全问题比教育目标更重要。[70][82][84] 出于对囚犯制造武器的担忧，监狱就会限制一些职业教育。[85] 安全例行检查（例如人员清点和搜查）也就会频繁打断监狱教育。[74] 如果监狱被封锁，囚犯将无法上课。而这样的封锁可能会持续数周。[86]

人们普遍认为囚犯有大量的空闲时间。然而现实却恰恰相反，他们能学习的时间极其有限。[86] 越来越多的远程教育课程都只在线上提供，这就造成了一大困难，因为大多数国家都不允许囚犯上网。[70][87][88] 一些监狱引入了平板电脑，里面下有能离线观看的教育内容，这样的做法或多或少解决了这一困难。[89]

现有教育项目中名额短缺，大量囚犯等待入学。有时候囚犯的刑期短于等待入学时间，这就导致他们可能无法接受教育。[37] 由于语言障碍的存在，在监狱中外籍囚犯的教学也存在困难。[71][50] 只有当囚犯已经达到所在国家母语者的语言水平时，他们才能有资格尝试学习这些课程，因为不一定会有翻译来教他们当地的语言。[90]

有时候学习就是附加的压力。你会学到抓狂，因为一周在教室里学四小时根本写不完所有作业。我还必须要在地上学习，因为没有单人牢房。我想放弃了，你不会想在监狱里还给自己再增加学习的压力的。
—一位澳大利亚罪犯陈述在监狱里学习的困难[86]

监狱教育的最大障碍之一就是囚犯会频繁地被转移。[70][86] 在监狱过度拥挤、囚犯安全级别降级、囚犯需要出庭或是看病时，他们就会被随时转到另一个监狱。[39][70] 不同的监狱对教育的态度以及拥有的教育资源差别可能很大。[39][86] 如果教育课程由监狱内部开设，那么将囚犯转移到另一所监狱实际上会迫使他们退学。[39] 学习函授课程的囚犯必须通知课程老师自己情况的变化，通常是通过邮件，他们能否补上错过的课程都看课程老师和新监狱工作人员的意愿。如果学习材料在运输过程中丢失了或运错地方了，囚犯必须重新向教育机构申请更换。因此，更换监狱是囚犯停止本科等级学习的一个主要原因。[86]

工作人员短缺，[70] 与讲师或其他学生联系困难，[91][92] 监狱图书馆教育资源匮乏，[93][94] 没有专门授课的房间，[95] 缺乏视听设备和电脑，[82] 或是有设备但是用不了，[86] 没有合适的学习场所（因为共用牢房通常没有课桌），还有课后没有合适的小组活动场所，这些都是监狱教育面临的障碍。[82] 监狱内的教育工作者可能没有接受过足够的监狱培训，[70][82] 并且可能很难有愿意接受监狱开出的薪酬的外部教师。[96] 政府部门相互收取服务费用也可能构成障碍。例如，国有监狱的预算可能无法承担国有教育机构规定的费用。[40] 监狱工作人员也可能不怎么支持或公然反对自己所在的监狱进行的监狱教育。[66] 例如，一些监狱工作人员可能因为自己受教育程度低，所以不满囚犯获得教育机会，[97] 或者是不满他们自己必须要付学费才能接受教育，而囚犯却能免费接受教育。[95] 然而，必须支付学费的囚犯可能不愿意入学，因为如果出现封锁或其他无法控制的情况而导致他们无法完成学业的话，学费是不会退还给他们的。他们通常也不愿意申请学生贷款，因为他们担心出狱后负债累累。[98] 由于学习是一种特权，狱警可以随意所欲地威胁他们，剥夺他们的权利，教育也就可以被用作进一步惩罚或控制他们的一种方式，所以囚犯也会不太情愿接受教育。[99][100]

以前教育失败的经历以及缺乏学习动力也都是囚犯不愿意参加教育课程的原因。[71] 那些刑满后要被驱除出境的外籍囚犯往往不愿意学习监禁地的语言，或是在当地获得学位。[71] 西方世界监狱提供的职业类培训，例如制造业，并不适用于那些将被驱逐回制造业不发达国家的囚犯。其他一些像木工这样的职业培训，又已经过时，不能切实地给囚犯带来就业机会。[101] 由于在监狱中学习的课程学分存在认证问题，少年囚犯获释后可能难以重返正常校园。[102]经济方面的刺激也是囚犯决定参加教育计划的一个因素。在英国和比利时，参加学习项目的囚犯获得的津贴低于那些从事清洁或后厨等家务劳动的囚犯，这就导致囚犯更倾向于选择家务劳动。有子女的囚犯特别倾向于在监狱里就业，而不是接受教育，因为这能让他们寄更多的钱回家来补贴家用。[71]

尽管困难重重，一些囚犯表示，由于监狱里干扰较少，所以在监狱里学习更方便。而且囚犯也往往比一般人更有学习动力，所以他们注意力更高。[103][104] 在监狱工作的讲师表示，与普通学生相比，囚犯更有可能在课前做好课程准备，在课后阅读课程笔记。[105]

疫情加剧了监狱教育当前面临的许多挑战，例如更为严格的封锁和囚犯转移监狱的问题。[106] 由于规章制度的限制，教师和工作人员通常不能进入监狱，教育项目也因此暂停。除此之外，向监狱提供教育的外部机构在疫情期间也不营业。邮寄的材料需要被隔离，这也影响了教育项目的持续运营，教师经常在作业的提交期限后很久才收到囚犯的作业。[106] 虽然许多教育机构能够在疫情期间转为线上远程学习，但由于许多监狱不允许互联网接入，因此许多监狱也无法进行线上学习。[102][107]

Reductions in recidivism

Rates

Recidivism in many countries is high, with rates over 50% not uncommon.[108] Recidivism rates are difficult to compare between countries, due to differences in laws and also what constitutes recidivism. Some countries consider simply being re-arrested as recidivism, whereas others count re-conviction or re-imprisonment. There is also little consistency in the periods of time measured,[108] and some countries do not release figures at all.[109] A 2019 study analysing the latest available figures from 23 countries and self-governing areas found that within two years of release, re-arrest rates ranged from 26% (Singapore) to 60% (US), re-conviction rates ranged from 20% (Norway) to 63% (Denmark), and re-imprisonment rates ranged from 14% (Oregon, US) to 45% (Australia).[109]

Reasons

People in prison systems worldwide are consistently less educated than the general population,[66][71][110][111][112][113] and ex-prisoners are also less likely to obtain employment after release than people of the same age that do not have a criminal record.[114] Prison education programmes are intended to reduce recidivism by increasing an inmate's ability to secure employment.[115][116] A study in the UK in 2002 found that employment reduced a former prisoner's chance of re-offending by at least a third,[71] and a meta-analysis conducted by the RAND Corporation, which completed a comprehensive literature search of studies released in the US between 1980 and 2011, found that participating in educational courses increased an inmate's chances of being employed post-release by 13%.[116]

Prison education programmes consistently have a significant effect on reducing recidivism, whereas prison labour, which is typically more prevalent in prison than education, has been shown to have little to no effect.[117] Prison education also has therapeutic benefits such as alleviating boredom, improving self-esteem and stimulating creativity, all of which have been linked to reductions in recidivism;[70][118] studies have shown that the majority of benefits from high-school equivalency programmes in prison come from the experience of learning, rather than from the opportunities that arise after obtaining the qualification.[83] Educational programmes have also been shown to reduce violence within prisons;[97][117][119] UNESCO has suggested general educational programmes for prisoners as a way of combating extremism.[120] Education has also been advocated for prisoners who are not expected to ever be released, on the grounds that it promotes a better atmosphere in the prison community, and prisoners serving life sentences often act as role models for others.[121]

Effects

Study designs

Observational studies of the effects of education on recidivism have been criticised for self-selection bias: it has been argued that recidivism is not due to the educational courses themselves, but only reflects the positive attitudes of people who volunteer for them.[70] "Quasi-experimental" attempts to control for such biasses with paired difference tests have found that the effect on recidivism persists.[115][122] Trials that randomly assigned prisoners to either a treatment group or a control group, thus making self-selection impossible, found similar effects.[123] Such fully-experimental interventions (randomized controlled trials) are rare in criminology; practical difficulties are often cited as a reason for this lack, but the culture of the academic field may be more relevant.[124] A study in North Carolina using data from 1990-1991 found that there was no significant difference in outcomes for prisoners who volunteered for programmes, compared to those who were required to participate in education due to official mandates, supporting a call for mandatory literacy programmes in prison.[125]

Some studies on the link between recidivism and education in prison disregard results if an inmate does not complete the educational course; such studies therefore never measure the potential benefits of simply participating in courses. Due to the disparaging factors that prevent inmates from completing education programmes, studies that only record results for graduates are especially vulnerable to selection bias, as they utilise an independent variable that is strongly associated with ability and motivation, though they are not able to adjust for these factors.[83] Studies on prison education have a reputation for measuring effectiveness against rates of recidivism alone, and do not take into consideration any other factors such as the experience from the perspective of either students or teachers.[126][127]

History and results

In the US, there were few studies on the relationship between educational programmes and recidivism before the 1970s.[18] The first was done at the Ohio Penitentiary in 1924, and examined 200 inmates who had completed correspondence programmes. The results, which found that inmates in the programme were more "successful" after release, established the first link in the US between prison education and reduced recidivism.[122] A 1948 study at a Wisconsin State Prison examined 680 prisoners who attended full-time study in custody for two years after their release. Results indicated a "small but statistically significant" decrease in recidivism.[18] The first extensive study undertaken to examine the relationship was called Project Newgate.[18] Beginning in 1969, and studying 145 inmates in Minnesota over five years, results indicated that inmates who participated in an education programme were more than 33% less likely to return to prison.[128][129] Other results at the time were not unanimous. A meta-analysis in 1975 and another in 1983 found that while education programmes in prison were beneficial for inmates, their effects on recidivism were inconclusive;[18] the methods used in these meta-analyses have been considered to be of poor quality by modern standards.[130] Later studies, however, consistently show that educational programmes reduce the rates of re-offending.[115] A 1987 study of Federal Bureau of Prisons inmates found that those who participated in education programmes were 8.6% less likely to return to prison,[131] and a 1997 study of 3,200 inmates in Maryland, Minnesota and Ohio found a reduction rate of 29%.[22] A meta-analysis of 15 studies done in the US during the 1990s found that, on average, inmates who attended tertiary level education in prison were 31% less likely to re-offend.[122] The RAND Corporation meta-analysis found that, on average, there was a reduction rate of 13% for inmates who participated in educational programmes,[116] and a meta-analysis of 57 studies in the US between 1980 and 2017 found the average recidivism reduction was 32%.[130] An educational programme created by the Bard Prison Initiative has a recidivism rate of 4% for people who only attended the course and 2.5% for those who completed it.[23]

An Australian study of prisoners released between July 2001 and November 2002 found that in the two years following release, inmates who participated in educational programmes were nine per cent less likely to return to prison.[87][96] A 2005 report found that in the Australian state of Queensland there was a 24–28% reduction in the rate of recidivism among inmates who completed education courses.[132] A study of 14,643 prisoners in Western Australia between 2005 and 2010 found that those who undertook prison education were 11.25% less likely to be re-incarcerated.[133] In England and Wales, a 2014 study of more than 6,000 prisoners found that those who undertook education courses were seven per cent less likely to return to prison.[134] A prison education programme in Ukraine had only three out of 168 participants (1.8%) re-offend in 2013;[66] the re-offending rate in Ukraine in 1993 was 30% within three years and 66% within five years.[135] As of 2012, the re-offending rate in the Dominican Republic for persons incarcerated in prisons with mandatory educational programmes is less than 3% after three years, compared to about 50% for those in prisons without such programmes.[26]

Effects of prison education courses have been found to be cumulative; studies show the more classes an individual takes while in prison, the less likely they will be to re-offend.[87][133] Studies also show higher level qualifications are associated with lower re-offending rates.[115][136] A 2000 study by the Texas Department of Education found that the overall re-offending rate was 40–43%, though the rate for inmates who completed an associate degree or bachelor's degree was 27.2% and 7.8% respectively.[22]

There is less data available on the relationship between educational programmes and recidivism in juvenile detention.[137] Results are difficult to measure as juvenile inmates are more likely to finish their sentences before their schooling is completed.[83] Further complications arise in countries where all juvenile inmates typically receive education, such as the US, as it is not possible to compare the effects of programmes against a "no education" control group.[138] A meta-analysis in the US in 2014 found that juveniles who completed secondary school equivalency programmes were 47% less likely to offend. Meta-analysis on the impact of vocational education on juvenile offenders, however, only showed minor improvements below the level of statistical significance.[83]

Cost and financial benefits

 
Prisoners from the Coyote Ridge Corrections Center in 2015, participating in a Bureau of Land Management programme to preserve sagebrush habitat, and the species that depend on it. Inmates needed to complete a conservation course to participate in the programme.

In 2013, the cost of providing education to a prisoner in the United States was between $1,400 and $1,744 a year, and the cost of incarceration was between $28,323 and $31,286 per inmate,[139] while in Canada the cost was on average $2,950 per year for education, and $111,202 for incarceration per male inmate; female inmates cost approximately twice this amount to incarcerate.[140][141] In England and Wales, education courses linked with reduced recidivism are priced at about £250 each as of 2014, compared to an average annual cost of £37,648 to incarcerate each inmate.[134] In Australia in 1988, the cost of incarcerating a prisoner was $40,000 a year, while the entire budget for prison education at Bathurst Correctional Complex was $120,000 per year. In order for that prison's programme to be cost effective at that time, it would have only needed to keep one person out of prison for three years.[142] As of 2015, the average cost of incarcerating a prisoner in Australia is $109,821 a year.[143]

Studies have found that due to the increased post-release employment and decreased recidivism associated with prison education, the financial savings to the community more than offset the cost of the programmes.[144] A 2003 study found that a prison education programme in Maryland reduced recidivism by 20%. Government analysts estimated that the programme was saving taxpayers more than $24 million a year based solely on the costs of re-incarceration.[145] In the State of Washington, the cost of post-secondary prison education in 2016 was $1,249 per inmate, while the total financial savings per inmate due to the courses was found to be $26,630. In 2019, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy concluded there was a 100% chance that post-secondary education programmes would produce benefits greater than the course costs,[146] while vocational and basic literacy education were both found to have a 98% chance of being cost-effective, with net savings of $17,226 and $11,364 per inmate respectively.[147] Estimates on the cost effectiveness of prison education are typically conservative, as they are unable to measure the indirect savings as a result of fewer victims, and reduced strain on police, judicial and social service systems. Taxpayers save additional money as former prisoners who gain employment pay taxes, are better able to support their families,[145][148] and are less reliant on public financial assistance.[133][142]

A 2004 study by the University of California, Los Angeles, found that spending $1 million on prison education prevents about 600 crimes, and the same amount spent on incarceration prevents only 350 crimes.[149] A 2009 study found that in the UK, every £1 spent on prison education saved taxpayers £2.50.[71] The 2013 RAND Corporation study estimated that every dollar spent on education saves taxpayers $4 to $5,[23][150][151] and that to break even on the cost of education programmes, recidivism must be reduced by between 1.9% and 2.6%.[152] According to a 2013 article by Glenn C. Altschuler and David J. Skorton in Forbes, given the relatively low cost of education and long-term financial savings "it's hard to fathom why there isn't a national, fully funded prison education program in every [US prison] facility".[21]

Funding allocation and prevalence

Both the availability and rate of participation in prison education programmes, as well as the funding available for programmes, varies greatly around the world. It is often difficult to obtain meaningful data on the amount of funding available for prison education, as the money may not come from a dedicated budget, but rather from a variety of sources. In some cases, each individual prison receives a set amount of funding, and the prison warden must determine how much, if any, is spent on education.[68] A survey in 2012 financed by the European Commission found that out of 31 countries in Europe, the majority reported no change in the budget for prison education over the previous three years. Funding was reported to have decreased for general education in three countries and increased in four. Countries that decreased funding appeared to also have decreases in prison budgets overall, while those that reported increases may have only been a reflection of the growth in prison population and corresponding increase in overall spending.[68] The budget for prison education in Norway increased from NOK 107 million in 2005 to NOK 225 million in 2012.[68] In the US, the rate of spending on prison education has decreased, even though the budget for the prison system overall has increased. In 2010, 29% of prison budgets were allocated to education, the lowest rate in three decades; in 1982, the rate was 33%.[150][153] Funding for tertiary programmes was reduced from $23 million in 2008 to $17 million in 2009.[84] In Honduras, as of 2012, 97% of the prison system's budget is spent entirely on staff salaries and food, leaving barely any funding for sanitation or other services.[26]

A study in 1994 of 34 countries found that half offered basic literacy programmes to inmates, and one-third a form of education higher than that.[154] In 2004, 27% of US inmates participated in an education course,[130] and in 2005, 35–42% of US prisons were offering tertiary education programmes. As of 2009–10, six percent of inmates in participating US states were enrolled in a tertiary programme.[84] While Kyrgyzstan's Criminal Code guarantees the right to education for inmates, the country's prison system has been plagued with problems since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, including insufficient budgets and training for educational staff. As of 2014, six of the 31 prisons in the country offered vocational education, and 13.5% of inmates overall were enrolled in such programmes.[66] The Bahamas initiated a prison education programme in 1994, which, while successful, only had the resources to be delivered to 10.75% of inmates.[25] As of 1996, only 6% of prisoners in Venezuela had access to education, and many prisons there did not offer education at all.[155]

In 2012–13, 14,353 of Morocco's 70,675 inmates participated in educational programmes, an increase of about 20% on the previous year.[66] Educating prisoners in Morocco is particularly challenging, as about 79% of inmates are illiterate and 46% are on remand.[156] As of 2014, it is compulsory for inmates in South Africa to complete at least Grade 9 of schooling.[157] As of 2017, 50% of inmates at Naivasha prison in Kenya are undertaking formal education, and inmates across the country can complete distance education through the University of London.[158][159] As of 2016, imprisoned students in Egypt are allowed to complete university degrees, but only those that do not require practical components such as the laboratory work that science degrees would require. Prisoners are also entitled to complete their Thanaweya Amma tests.[160] As of 1992, 440 inmates (1.3% of the prison population) in Egypt were attending secondary or university education.[161] Inspectors from Human Rights Watch were shown classrooms purported to be used for teaching basic literacy at two prisons, though they reported the rooms appeared to not have not been used for some time, and also heard an allegation that inmates were only permitted to access education if they first converted to Islam.[162] Prisoners in Jordan have access to secondary and tertiary education, though female prisoners are typically given access to less educational programmes than men.[156] Roumieh Prison, which houses about half the prisoners in Lebanon, has 12% of inmates enrolled in secondary education and 7% in tertiary education as of 2014.[163] Prisoners formally had access to a wide range of industrial vocational education, however, these programmes were terminated in 1975 due to concerns about manufacturing weapons; as of 2017 the only vocational education offered is computer literacy.[164]

Both the European Convention on Human Rights and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union state that no person shall be denied the right to education, and the European Prison Rules state the education of prisoners shall "be integrated with the educational and vocational training system of the country so that after their release they may continue their education and vocational training without difficulty".[70] Despite this, prison policy documentation in several European countries does not mention education at all, and the 2012 European Commission survey found that there were 15 countries in Europe (including the UK) with less than 25% of inmates participating in educational programmes.[70] Twenty-one of the countries reported there had been an increase in participation over the last five years, five reported no change and three reported a small decrease. Participation for juveniles was considerably higher; these results were expected as juvenile inmates are generally under the mandatory age for school attendance. Eleven of the countries reported a rate of above 50%, and a further 10 countries reported a rate of over 75%. The survey also found that general education was offered to adult inmates in all prisons in 15 countries, in the majority of prisons in six countries and in less than half of prisons in 10 countries.[68]

In the UK, between 2010 and 2015, the number of inmates studying at university level dropped from 1,722 to 1,079, and the number of inmates studying at GCE Advanced Level had halved.[165] As of 2016, only 16% of those who leave prison in the UK completed an education or training placement.[166] According to a 2014 report, Belarus had 82 correctional centres, five of which were running primary and secondary schooling for inmates and a further 21 of which were offering vocational training.[66]

While inmates may face difficulty accessing education in some European countries, it is widely available or even mandatory in others. In both Germany and the Netherlands, prisoners are required to both work and study while in custody.[167] In 2013, between half and three-quarters of inmates in Germany participated in education programmes.[71] Prison education is considered to be exceptionally good in Norway; by law all inmates must have access to educational courses.[168] Similar laws are in effect in Austria,[71] and Denmark.[169] As of 2017, the European Union is funding a prison school in Jamaica.[170]

In 1996–97, the rate of prisoners undertaking education in Australia ranged from 28% in South Australia to 88% in New South Wales, and averaged 57%.[171] For 2006–07, the national average was 36.1%.[172] A 2014 report found that the decrease in participation was due to the inability of prison educational courses across the country to cope with the growth in the prison population.[173] In 2018–19, the national average was 38.0%.[174] Vocational education had the highest participation rate at 24.9%, and university level education had the lowest at 1.5%.[174] In every state and territory in Australia, the demand for prison education greatly exceeds the available space.[37][40]

A 1990 investigation by Human Rights Watch which visited seven prisons in Indonesia found that all the prisons offered some form of basic literacy classes, though very little education beyond this level. In two of the prisons, "religious education" was compulsory.[175] In 1991, 561,000 inmates in China attended education courses and 546,000 were awarded a certificate for completing such a course; there were 1.2 million inmates in China in 1991.[176] As of 2016, only one of Singapore's 14 prisons has a school for inmates. Participation at the prison, however, is increasing. In 2015, 239 inmates sat for General Certificate of Education exams, compared to 210 in 2012.[177]

Opposition

Community perceptions of prisons and prisoners were essentially a product of sensationalist media reportage, and the advocates of a commitment to rehabilitation tended to be howled down as 'do gooders' or worse. There was little place for the suggestion that the majority of prisoners might be fairly ordinary people involved in fairly extraordinary circumstances, for whom prison should provide an opportunity to re-establish themselves as citizens and workers on their (inevitable) return to society.
—Senator John Tierney commenting on public opinion to prison education in a 1996 Australian federal government report[39]

Prison education programmes are not without opposition. There is often little public sympathy for prisoners, and the issue is often not given political priority, as there may be few votes to be gained from political support.[39][44] The lack of support for prison education has been linked to sensationalist reporting on crime, including a disproportionate emphasis on violent offences, perpetuating public fear. This in turn leads to a political desire to be seen as "tough on crime".[39][70] According to the United Nations General Assembly, the "willingness of politicians" to reflect these fears has led to a "reluctance to embed prisoners' rights to education".[70]

Arguments made against prison education include that inmates do not deserve the right to be educated, doing so is being "soft on crime", and that it is a waste of taxpayers' money.[173][178][179] It has also been argued that giving imprisoned people education is "rewarding" them for having committed crimes, and that it is unfair for inmates to receive free education when law-abiding citizens must pay for it.[23][180] According to criminologist Grant Duwe, the complaint that giving prisoners free education effectively treats them better than regular citizens is valid, though the practice should nonetheless be encouraged due to the significant savings for taxpayers as a result of decreases in crime.[117]

Politicians who have advocated for prison education are often met with opposition from rival parties. In 2014, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo proposed allocating $1 million of the state's $2.8 billion budget for prisons towards a college programme for inmates. The proposal was supported by 53% of voters; however, it faced backlash from lawmakers and the opposition party, with 68% of Republicans opposing it. It was subsequently withdrawn and replaced by a programme that was privately funded instead.[23][178] In response, three Republican congressmen introduced a bill entitled the Kids Before Cons Act, which aimed to remove Pell grants and federal financial aid for prison education, but the bill was never brought to a vote.[151][178][181] Efforts to expand prison education in the Australian state of Queensland by the Labor Party have frequently been opposed by the Liberal Party; in 2016, then Shadow Minister for Police Jarrod Bleijie said that prison "shouldn't be a place where we want to invest all this money into making sure [inmates get] a better education than what our kids are".[179]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第97–98页.
  3. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第25–27页.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第67页.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Smith 2017a，第226页.
  6. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第47–48页.
  7. ^ Andersen, Anna. Doing Time in Iceland. The Reykjavík Grapevine. September 27, 2011. （原始内容存档于May 18, 2018）. 
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  13. ^ McConville 2015，第409, 410页.
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  16. ^ Rothman 1998，第192页.
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  18. ^ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 Linden, Rick; Perry, Linda. The Effectiveness of Prison Education Programs . Journal of Offender Counseling Services Rehabilitation. 1983, 6 (4): 43–57. doi:10.1080/10509674.1982.9963696. 
  19. ^ International Prison Commission 1900，第28页.
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  21. ^ 21.0 21.1 21.2 Skorton, David J.; Altschuler, Glenn. College Behind Bars: How Educating Prisoners Pays Off. Forbes. March 25, 2013. （原始内容存档于March 21, 2018）. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 22.2 SpearIt. Keeping It Real: Why Congress Must Act to Restore Pell Grant Funding for Prisoners. University of Massachusetts Law Review. 2016, 11. SSRN 2711979  . 
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