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Four female prisoners in beige uniforms seated at desks . A teacher is supervising one of them.
美國聯邦監獄裡的一節課

監獄教育是指一切在監獄內進行的教育活動。課程包括基礎識字課、中學等級課程、職業教育和高等教育。其他如康復訓練、體育活動、手工美術等一類的課程也屬於監獄教育。通常來說，監獄系統提供、管理和資助這些教育課程，儘管如此，囚犯還是可能需要支付遠程教育項目的費用。各國監獄教育的歷史和現狀差異很大。

從世界範圍來看，囚犯的平均教育水平低於普通大眾。監獄教育的目的往往是讓囚犯在出獄後更容易就業。不論是管理監獄中的教育項目，還是參加這些課程，都不是件容易的事。人手不足、預算短缺、教育資源、電腦數量匱乏以及囚犯轉移難度大，都是常見的困難。由於過去失敗的教育經歷或是缺乏學習動力，囚犯可能不願參加這些教育課程。

研究一致表明，監獄教育是降低累犯率的有效方法，繼而有效減少政府未來在監獄上的支出。據估計，在英國，政府每在監獄教育上花費一英鎊，納稅人就能節省兩英鎊以上；在美國，政府每在監獄教育上花費一美元，納稅人就能節省四到五美元。儘管監獄教育好處多多，但許多國家的監獄教育普及率仍然很低。有人試圖為監獄教育申請更多資金，但是都被駁回了。反對者認為，監獄教育就是浪費金錢，囚犯不值得享受這些教育。

History

Europe

The history and availability of prison education in Europe varies greatly between countries. Nordic countries have a long history of providing education to prisoners, and Sweden in particular is considered to be a pioneer in the field.[1] Prison education became mandatory for inmates under 35 in 1842, and vocational education can be traced back to at least 1874, when the Uppsala County prison hired a carpenter to teach inmates woodworking.[2] In Denmark, juvenile offenders have had access to education since the 1850s, and educational programmes became mandatory for them in 1930. Adult prisons have had educational programmes since 1866, and legislation requiring all inmates under the age of 30 to participate in educational courses was implemented in 1952.[3] Norway opened its first prison to focus on education as a form of rehabilitation in 1851.[4] By 1875, all eight prisons in the country were providing education to inmates,[5] and by the end of the century, legislation was in effect ensuring that any prisoner who had not completed primary and lower secondary schooling should do so while in prison.[4] As of 2007, every prison in Norway has a school for inmates.[5] In Finland, legislation was adopted in 1866 which ensured that all prisoners would receive primary education, though the implementation of the order faced practical difficulties. A more successful education reform was implemented in 1899, which remained unchanged until 1975.[6] However Iceland, which as of 2011 averaged only 137 prisoners in the country,[7] only began implementing education programmes in 1971.[8]

Between 1939 and 1975, while under the rule of Francisco Franco, prisons in Spain were infamous for their harsh conditions and levels of repression. Attitudes later softened, with the 1978 Constitution declaring that prisons should be oriented at re-education rather than forced labor.[9] While university access existed, a 1992 Human Rights Watch report found that most prisons only offered basic education and some vocational training, and female inmates had less access to education than males.[10] As of 2018, the National University of Distance Education is the only institution allowed to provide university education to inmates.[11] In 1976, laws in Italy clarified that prisoners were entitled to university education. However, prisoners were unable to complete courses as correctional facilities neither provided entry for teachers, or leave for students to complete exams. Prisoners were only effectively allowed to study at university from 1986 when laws were relaxed, and further rights were enabled in 2000, greatly improving educational access. Many partnerships between prisons and universities were established between the early 2000s and mid 2010s.[11]

The first significant development of prison education in England was Robert Peel's Parliamentary Gaol Act of 1823, which called for reading and writing classes in all prisons.[12] While prison staff in the 1850s recognised the importance of basic literacy, they opposed giving prisoners any form of higher education on the grounds that education itself would not provide any "moral elevation".[13] The Prison Act of 1877 is considered to have established the prison system that remained in effect until the 1990s, which only offered education of a "narrow and selective kind".[12] In 1928, the majority of prisons in the UK were still only offering the most basic education courses.[14] By 1958, while the number of educational staff in prisons had increased, there had been no other significant advancements in prison education. Education programmes did not improve until 1992, when the decision was made to outsource educational instruction on a competitive basis. More than 150 organizations applied, and by 1994, there were 45 educational providers across 125 prisons, providing various forms of education including secondary and tertiary.[12]

Attempts to rehabilitate prisoners in Russia were made in 1819, possibly for the first time in the country's history. Reforms included instructing them in "piety and good morals", though this proved impossible due to the cramped conditions, extreme poverty and lack of other services. Instead, general improvements to conditions were first made, after which "religious and moral education" were gradually introduced.[15] In 1918, it was recommended that children in Russian prisons should receive education alongside punishment. However, few educational programmes were implemented, because of the competing agendas of various jurisdictions and agencies.[16] In the 1920s, efforts were made within the Gulag prison camps to eradicate illiteracy. Almost all the camps had classes on "political education", and some also had classes such as natural science, history of culture and foreign languages.[17]

North America

 
A prison literacy class for African Americans in New Orleans, 1937

In the United States, prisoners were given religious instruction by chaplains in the early 19th century, and secular prison education programmes were first developed in order to help inmates to read Bibles and other religious texts. The first major education programme aimed at rehabilitating prisoners was launched in 1876.[18] Zebulon Brockway, the superintendent of Elmira Reformatory in New York, was the initial person to implement such a programme. He believed prison education would "discipline the mind and fit it to receive ... the thoughts and principles that constitute their possessors good citizens".[18] By 1900, the states of Massachusetts, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Illinois and Minnesota had adopted the "Elmira system" of education,[19] and by the 1930s, educational programmes could be found in most prisons.[18] Tertiary education programmes did not appear until much later. In 1960, only nine states were offering college-level education to inmates; by 1983, such programmes were available in most states.[18]

Support and availability of educational programmes has fluctuated in the US as policy has switched between focusing on rehabilitation and crime control.[20] Between 1972 and 1995, inmates in the US were able to apply for Pell Grants, a subsidy programme run by the US federal government that provides funding for students.[21] However, in 1994 Congress passed the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, which denied Pell Grants to anyone who is incarcerated.[22] As a result, by 2005 only about a dozen prisons were offering post-secondary education, compared to 350 in the early 1990s;[21] the number in New York dropped from 70 to 4.[23] In 2015, President Barack Obama created a pilot programme that allowed a limited number of inmates to receive Pell grants. More than 200 colleges in 47 states subsequently expressed interest in running educational programmes for prisoners.[23] The Pell ban was repealed in December 2020, reinstating eligibility for federal financial aid to thousands of incarcerated people in the US.[24]

The development of prison education within Canada has paralleled that of the US. Royal Commissions in 1914 and 1936 both recommended that work programmes be replaced, at least to some extent, by rehabilitative programmes including education.[18] However, education programmes did not become commonplace until the mid 1940s.[18]

Caribbean

A prison system in Barbados was established in 1945. Education programmes were officially introduced into it in 1956, and focused on basic literacy and numeracy, though female prisoners were not allowed to participate until the Prison Reform Act of 1961–66 was passed. Inmates over the age of 25 were not allowed to participate in programmes until 1990, when Barbados adopted the mandate of the World Conference on Education For All. The mandate also saw the offering of vocational and secondary education in the prison system.[25] The Dominican Republic underwent a prison reform beginning in 2003, with basic literacy becoming compulsory at nearly half the country's 35 prisons; if inmates refuse to participate they were denied privileges such as visitation. As of 2012, 36 of the 268 prisoners at Najayo women's prison were completing university degrees in either law or psychology.[26]

Outside access to, and information regarding the conditions of prisons in Cuba following its political revolution in the 1950s is limited. The government permitted limited access for some journalists in 2013, but it is unclear to what extent those facilities may have been representative of the country's prisons as a whole. Private interviews were not permitted, but officials highlighted the system's work and study programmes, including the teaching of skilled trades such as carpentry.[27][28] According to one 1988 report by the Institute for Policy Studies, prisoners were provided with education up to a ninth grade level, inmates were provided with training in technical skills and as much as 85% of the population worked. Political reeducation also played a major role in Cuban penology.[29]

South America

Education opportunities in prison are considered to be generally poorer in South America in comparison to Europe and North America.[26] Resources for education are comparatively lacking due to rising incarceration rates and prison overcrowding, partly a by-product of the war on drugs.[30] Prison education programmes began in Argentina in the 1950s. Although details about programmes and their effectiveness is limited, the lack of available data is attributed to corruption within the prison system, alongside poor living conditions and high levels of violence.[31] A law was enacted in 1996 ensuring all prisoners with less than the compulsory nine years of basic schooling be able to participate in educational programmes. Due to administrative constraints, on average only about 25% of eligible prisoners participated in these programmes as of 2010.[32]

As of 2009, Brazil was considered to have one of the most progressive policies on prison education in South America.[33] In 1984, the National Congress of Brazil passed a prison reform law, recognising inmates' right to education and other services, though the law has not been effectively implemented.[33] As of 1998, some prisons were not offering education at all, while others only had "a fraction" of inmates studying; about 23% of inmates at São Paulo State Penitentiary were enrolled in some form of education;[34] access to education was "more easily available" in female prisons.[35] A 2002 report by the Federal Court of Accounts estimated that over 90% of the federal budget for prisons was spent on construction of new jails, and the funding for programmes including education "was not used [for] consistent policies but rather punctual and dispersed initiatives proposed by the states".[33] As of 2004, it is estimated that less than 20% of Brazil's 400,000 inmates had access to education.[33]

Oceania

 
An educational classroom at a prison in New South Wales, Australia, c. 1900

The first formal education programme to be implemented in the Australian state of New South Wales was at Darlinghurst Gaol in 1862, when a schoolmaster was hired to provide elementary and moral education to any prisoner who wished to attend. Prior to this one of the prisoners had been providing educational lessons to other inmates.[36] By the early 1900s, basic literacy programmes were commonplace throughout Australian prisons,[37] and by the 1950s, all major prisons in the country were offering some form of education and training programmes, though no more than 15 to 20% of inmates at any given prison could participate in educational programmes at one time.[38]

The Senate Employment, Education and Training References Committee produced the Senate Report of the Inquiry into Education and Training in Correctional Facilities in 1996.[37] The report stated that the history of prison education in Australia "could fairly be described as a disgrace", with non-existent or poor facilities containing deficient and out-dated curricula and resources.[39] It made several recommendations on how to improve prison education, including the development of a national strategy. In 2001, a national strategy was launched, and by 2006, all states and territories were offering some form of tertiary education to inmates.[37] Each state and territory, however, maintains control over its own prison education systems; there is no national system[37][40] leading to differences in the way education is offered. For example, inmates in the Australian Capital Territory have been allowed to have laptop computers in their cells for educational purposes since 2006, though as of 2020 this is not available for inmates in New South Wales. Accordingly, certain educational and rehabilitation programmes that require a computer cannot be offered there.[41][42][43]

According to the New Zealand Annual Review of Education, the availability and quality of prison education in the country decreased significantly between 1959 and 2005, as government policy shifted from prisons focusing on rehabilitation to prisons focusing on punishment. A 2005 Ombudsman's report stated there were "low levels of rehabilitative and productive activities" for prisoners in New Zealand.[44]

亞洲

眾所周知，道德教育和智力教育的缺失引起了犯罪。 現代監獄的原則是讓犯人懺悔，讓無知、醜惡、沒有道德的囚犯成為好公民，因此，道德和智力教育是必不可少的。
—中國官方監獄手冊，約30年代[45]

日本的監獄教育至少可以追溯到1871年，當時東京的一所監獄引入了實踐倫理講座。[46] 1881 年，監獄系統開始大規模開設閱讀和寫作課程。到十九世紀八十年代末，人們認為道德課程對囚犯來說最為重要，到了九十年代的時候，人們視教育為監獄制度中最重要的問題之一。[47] 1910 年，日本監獄法規定，必須給所有少年犯以及任何被認為有必要接受教育的成年囚犯提供教育。法律規定，監獄每天都要留出兩到四個小時來用於教育。[48] 1952年，各監獄開始函授教育。1955年，松本少年監獄內設立了一所高中，旨在讓未完成義務教育的少年犯繼續接受教育。[49] 截至2018年，它仍然是日本境內唯一一所設在監獄裡的高中。並且日本的男性囚犯只要提出申請，都可轉去那裡。[50][51]

上世紀二十年代，在中華民國成立後，中國的監獄制度也發生了一些變化。當時有批評稱，對囚犯的教育不夠充分，因此，監獄系統將改造的主要方法從宗教和道德層面的教育轉向了學識教育和苦力勞動。[52] 國民黨政府付出了相當大的努力來開發效果顯著、形式多樣的教育課程。除了識字和算術之外，課程設置還包括音樂作曲教學、道德教育、儒家思想以及愛國主義和政治思想學習。到了 20世紀30年代，監獄裡有關國民黨政治理念的教育顯着增加。1981年，中華人民共和國將監獄教育納入國民教育事業，極大地提高了服刑人員接受教育的機會。[53]


報告顯示，印度早在 19 世紀就要求建立監獄教育，而印度當時的監獄主要側重於懲罰性措施。 1983年，雖然監獄中已經設有普通課程和職業課程，但是這些課程教師不足，也沒有足夠的資金來維續這些課，課程中提供的職業培訓類型也已經過時。[54] 英迪拉·甘地國立開放大學(IGNOU) 在印度的監獄教育中發揮着重要作用。 1994 年，它在蒂哈爾監獄開設了學習中心，是印度第一所在監獄開設學習中心的大學。截止到 2010 年為止，IGNOU 已設有 52 個監獄學習中心，約有 1,500 名學生。其他幾所大學也有在印度的監獄中開展教育項目，但是由於學生只有在付費後才能參加課程，所以入學率仍然相對較低。 2010 年，IGNOU 與內政部合作，開始向囚犯提供免費教育。[55]

Africa

 
Nelson Mandela studied for his Bachelor of Laws while imprisoned on Robben Island.[56]

Prison education is generally less well-established throughout Africa in comparison to the Western world.[57] The first prison in Nigeria was established in 1872, however, as of 2010, no formal education programme had ever been implemented by the Nigerian government;[58][59] in 1986, one prison launched organised educational programmes though they were run and funded by inmates.[60] Following the death of de facto Nigerian President Sani Abacha in 1998, many political prisoners were released, bringing considerable media attention to the "grim conditions" they faced; prison in Nigeria was seen as purely punitive, with little to no resources given for infrastructure and rehabilitation programmes, like education. The provision of education was varied from prison to prison, though typically offered nothing better than informal apprenticeships in trades necessary to keep prisons operational.[59] However, by 2016, the National Open University of Nigeria had established training centers at six Nigerian prisons, and offers inmates a 50% discount on all tuition fees.[61]

In 1961, South Africa began holding criminal and political prisoners in a jail on Robben Island. Inmates were encouraged to study when the prison opened, and education programmes to ensure all inmates were literate when initiated. Only inmates whose families could afford to pay for tuition fees were permitted to participate, and access to education improved and then regressed with the prison's ever changing policy; by the end of the 1960s, programmes were restricted on the concern they were improving the inmates' morale too much. Historians also speculate the prison system was concerned that inmates were becoming better educated than the guards.[62] Inmates were able to undertake correspondence courses through the University of London International Programmes; Nelson Mandela completed a Bachelor of Laws while in custody, though his educational privileges were revoked for four years after staff discovered he was writing an autobiography, something which was forbidden at the time.[56] Efforts by inmates to educate themselves politically were significantly hampered by the prison's policy to forbid inmates access to newspapers, radios and television. These restrictions were lifted in the late 1970s; Jeff Radebe headed a political education programme at the prison in the 1980s.[63] As of 1993, education was a privilege rather than one of the inmates' rights. Basic literacy courses were provided by paid inmates, rather than qualified teachers, and higher levels of education were only available to inmates who could afford correspondence courses.[64]

With funding from the United Nations Development Programme, a basic literacy programme for inmates was launched in Ghana in 2003, and by 2008, all prisons were offering education to inmates, though the programme's effectiveness is severely affected by a lack of resources.[65] For many years, the only prison education offered in Morocco was farming skills at the country's agricultural prisons, though a 2014 report found that educational opportunities had been increasing and that literacy, vocational and other educational programmes were being offered.[66]

可供選擇的課程

 
 
不論是基本的算數（上圖）還是職業培訓（下圖）都可算作監獄教育。

監獄課程既設有基礎識字課程和中學水平課程，也有職業教育和高等教育課程。像是手工美術或業餘戲劇創作這類教囚犯新技能的非正式活動，也可以被視為是教育形式。[67] 同樣，一些國家將康復項目或體育教育都視為教育課程，而另一些國家則不然。[68] 監獄內的教育項目通常由監獄本身資助，可能是各個監獄獨自運營或是外包給別的供應商。初級教育、中等教育以及職業教育通常是免費的，但有些國家要求囚犯或其家屬支付函授課程的費用。 在2012年，在28個接受調查的歐洲國家中，有 15 個國家向囚犯提供免費的遠程教育，剩下的13 個國家則要求囚犯必須支付所有相關費用。只有一些特定課程在某些情況下是免費的。在丹麥，監獄裡小學和初中低年級水平的函授課程是免費的，但是更高等級課程部分的學費必須由囚犯支付。[68] 許多監獄規定，教育課程應側重於基本讀寫技能，[69] 這就導致有些監獄不提供任何更高水平的教育。[70] 有人反對說，這樣的舉措不能讓囚犯學習其他技能，[71] 並且他們覺得這樣會誤導人們相信只掌握最基本技能的人以後就會金盆洗手了。[72][73]

英國的囚犯和普通大眾一樣，都有權獲得政府大學生貸款，[68] 澳大利亞的囚犯也有同等權利。[74] 在英國，無力承擔遠程教育費用的囚犯可以向囚犯教育信託基金等慈善團體申請助學金。[75] 在澳大利亞和英國，還押候審或住院的囚犯沒有資格進行教育學習，[70][76] 波蘭也是如此。[77] 然而，挪威和芬蘭不單獨關押還押候審人員，他們有權享受與普通囚犯相同的教育機會。在丹麥和瑞典，還押候審犯人有權接受一些教育課程，但是課程選擇比別的囚犯少一些。[78]

挑戰

許多主流教學實踐都直接應用到了監獄教育中。常識教學通常被認為是最有效的，雖然監獄裡的規章制度可能會妨礙其實施。[79] 監獄教育計劃被認為是刑事司法系統充分合作和提供有意義的學習經歷的真誠努力之間的「微妙平衡之舉」。例如，雖然老師可能希望給囚犯提供持續的幫助，但監獄可能禁止囚犯在課後與老師聯繫，以獲得持續的反饋和學習上的幫助。[80] 在一些監獄中，可能有規定說教師不能用囚犯自己的名字稱呼他們，而是要稱他們為「罪犯」。這樣的做法阻礙了教師和學生之間信任的建立，而信任往往是成功教育的一個重要因素。[81]

在監獄中開展和參與教育項目還存在許多其他障礙。囚犯年齡、教育水平或工作經歷方面的差異都是老師在授課時會面對的挑戰。[82] 由於兒童的學業和情感需求不同，少年監獄也存在類似的挑戰。[83] 在監獄裡，安全問題比教育目標更重要。[70][82][84] 出於對囚犯製造武器的擔憂，監獄就會限制一些職業教育。[85] 安全例行檢查（例如人員清點和搜查）也就會頻繁打斷監獄教育。[74] 如果監獄被封鎖，囚犯將無法上課。而這樣的封鎖可能會持續數周。[86]

人們普遍認為囚犯有大量的空閒時間。然而現實卻恰恰相反，他們能學習的時間極其有限。[86] 越來越多的遠程教育課程都只在線上提供，這就造成了一大困難，因為大多數國家都不允許囚犯上網。[70][87][88] 一些監獄引入了平板電腦，裡面下有能離線觀看的教育內容，這樣的做法或多或少解決了這一困難。[89]

現有教育項目中名額短缺，大量囚犯等待入學。有時候囚犯的刑期短於等待入學時間，這就導致他們可能無法接受教育。[37] 由於語言障礙的存在，在監獄中外籍囚犯的教學也存在困難。[71][50] 只有當囚犯已經達到所在國家母語者的語言水平時，他們才能有資格嘗試學習這些課程，因為不一定會有翻譯來教他們當地的語言。[90]

有時候學習就是附加的壓力。你會學到抓狂，因為一周在教室里學四小時根本寫不完所有作業。我還必須要在地上學習，因為沒有單人牢房。我想放棄了，你不會想在監獄裡還給自己再增加學習的壓力的。
—一位澳大利亞罪犯陳述在監獄裡學習的困難[86]

監獄教育的最大障礙之一就是囚犯會頻繁地被轉移。[70][86] 在監獄過度擁擠、囚犯安全級別降級、囚犯需要出庭或是看病時，他們就會被隨時轉到另一個監獄。[39][70] 不同的監獄對教育的態度以及擁有的教育資源差別可能很大。[39][86] 如果教育課程由監獄內部開設，那麼將囚犯轉移到另一所監獄實際上會迫使他們退學。[39] 學習函授課程的囚犯必須通知課程老師自己情況的變化，通常是通過郵件，他們能否補上錯過的課程都看課程老師和新監獄工作人員的意願。如果學習材料在運輸過程中丟失了或運錯地方了，囚犯必須重新向教育機構申請更換。因此，更換監獄是囚犯停止本科等級學習的一個主要原因。[86]

工作人員短缺，[70] 與講師或其他學生聯繫困難，[91][92] 監獄圖書館教育資源匱乏，[93][94] 沒有專門授課的房間，[95] 缺乏視聽設備和電腦，[82] 或是有設備但是用不了，[86] 沒有合適的學習場所（因為共用牢房通常沒有課桌），還有課後沒有合適的小組活動場所，這些都是監獄教育面臨的障礙。[82] 監獄內的教育工作者可能沒有接受過足夠的監獄培訓，[70][82] 並且可能很難有願意接受監獄開出的薪酬的外部教師。[96] 政府部門相互收取服務費用也可能構成障礙。例如，國有監獄的預算可能無法承擔國有教育機構規定的費用。[40] 監獄工作人員也可能不怎麼支持或公然反對自己所在的監獄進行的監獄教育。[66] 例如，一些監獄工作人員可能因為自己受教育程度低，所以不滿囚犯獲得教育機會，[97] 或者是不滿他們自己必須要付學費才能接受教育，而囚犯卻能免費接受教育。[95] 然而，必須支付學費的囚犯可能不願意入學，因為如果出現封鎖或其他無法控制的情況而導致他們無法完成學業的話，學費是不會退還給他們的。他們通常也不願意申請學生貸款，因為他們擔心出獄後負債纍纍。[98] 由於學習是一種特權，獄警可以隨意所欲地威脅他們，剝奪他們的權利，教育也就可以被用作進一步懲罰或控制他們的一種方式，所以囚犯也會不太情願接受教育。[99][100]

以前教育失敗的經歷以及缺乏學習動力也都是囚犯不願意參加教育課程的原因。[71] 那些刑滿後要被驅除出境的外籍囚犯往往不願意學習監禁地的語言，或是在當地獲得學位。[71] 西方世界監獄提供的職業類培訓，例如製造業，並不適用於那些將被驅逐回製造業不發達國家的囚犯。其他一些像木工這樣的職業培訓，又已經過時，不能切實地給囚犯帶來就業機會。[101] 由於在監獄中學習的課程學分存在認證問題，少年囚犯獲釋後可能難以重返正常校園。[102]經濟方面的刺激也是囚犯決定參加教育計劃的一個因素。在英國和比利時，參加學習項目的囚犯獲得的津貼低於那些從事清潔或後廚等家務勞動的囚犯，這就導致囚犯更傾向於選擇家務勞動。有子女的囚犯特別傾向於在監獄裡就業，而不是接受教育，因為這能讓他們寄更多的錢回家來補貼家用。[71]

儘管困難重重，一些囚犯表示，由於監獄裡干擾較少，所以在監獄裡學習更方便。而且囚犯也往往比一般人更有學習動力，所以他們注意力更高。[103][104] 在監獄工作的講師表示，與普通學生相比，囚犯更有可能在課前做好課程準備，在課後閱讀課程筆記。[105]

疫情加劇了監獄教育當前面臨的許多挑戰，例如更為嚴格的封鎖和囚犯轉移監獄的問題。[106] 由於規章制度的限制，教師和工作人員通常不能進入監獄，教育項目也因此暫停。除此之外，向監獄提供教育的外部機構在疫情期間也不營業。郵寄的材料需要被隔離，這也影響了教育項目的持續運營，教師經常在作業的提交期限後很久才收到囚犯的作業。[106] 雖然許多教育機構能夠在疫情期間轉為線上遠程學習，但由於許多監獄不允許互聯網接入，因此許多監獄也無法進行線上學習。[102][107]

Reductions in recidivism

Rates

Recidivism in many countries is high, with rates over 50% not uncommon.[108] Recidivism rates are difficult to compare between countries, due to differences in laws and also what constitutes recidivism. Some countries consider simply being re-arrested as recidivism, whereas others count re-conviction or re-imprisonment. There is also little consistency in the periods of time measured,[108] and some countries do not release figures at all.[109] A 2019 study analysing the latest available figures from 23 countries and self-governing areas found that within two years of release, re-arrest rates ranged from 26% (Singapore) to 60% (US), re-conviction rates ranged from 20% (Norway) to 63% (Denmark), and re-imprisonment rates ranged from 14% (Oregon, US) to 45% (Australia).[109]

Reasons

People in prison systems worldwide are consistently less educated than the general population,[66][71][110][111][112][113] and ex-prisoners are also less likely to obtain employment after release than people of the same age that do not have a criminal record.[114] Prison education programmes are intended to reduce recidivism by increasing an inmate's ability to secure employment.[115][116] A study in the UK in 2002 found that employment reduced a former prisoner's chance of re-offending by at least a third,[71] and a meta-analysis conducted by the RAND Corporation, which completed a comprehensive literature search of studies released in the US between 1980 and 2011, found that participating in educational courses increased an inmate's chances of being employed post-release by 13%.[116]

Prison education programmes consistently have a significant effect on reducing recidivism, whereas prison labour, which is typically more prevalent in prison than education, has been shown to have little to no effect.[117] Prison education also has therapeutic benefits such as alleviating boredom, improving self-esteem and stimulating creativity, all of which have been linked to reductions in recidivism;[70][118] studies have shown that the majority of benefits from high-school equivalency programmes in prison come from the experience of learning, rather than from the opportunities that arise after obtaining the qualification.[83] Educational programmes have also been shown to reduce violence within prisons;[97][117][119] UNESCO has suggested general educational programmes for prisoners as a way of combating extremism.[120] Education has also been advocated for prisoners who are not expected to ever be released, on the grounds that it promotes a better atmosphere in the prison community, and prisoners serving life sentences often act as role models for others.[121]

Effects

Study designs

Observational studies of the effects of education on recidivism have been criticised for self-selection bias: it has been argued that recidivism is not due to the educational courses themselves, but only reflects the positive attitudes of people who volunteer for them.[70] "Quasi-experimental" attempts to control for such biasses with paired difference tests have found that the effect on recidivism persists.[115][122] Trials that randomly assigned prisoners to either a treatment group or a control group, thus making self-selection impossible, found similar effects.[123] Such fully-experimental interventions (randomized controlled trials) are rare in criminology; practical difficulties are often cited as a reason for this lack, but the culture of the academic field may be more relevant.[124] A study in North Carolina using data from 1990-1991 found that there was no significant difference in outcomes for prisoners who volunteered for programmes, compared to those who were required to participate in education due to official mandates, supporting a call for mandatory literacy programmes in prison.[125]

Some studies on the link between recidivism and education in prison disregard results if an inmate does not complete the educational course; such studies therefore never measure the potential benefits of simply participating in courses. Due to the disparaging factors that prevent inmates from completing education programmes, studies that only record results for graduates are especially vulnerable to selection bias, as they utilise an independent variable that is strongly associated with ability and motivation, though they are not able to adjust for these factors.[83] Studies on prison education have a reputation for measuring effectiveness against rates of recidivism alone, and do not take into consideration any other factors such as the experience from the perspective of either students or teachers.[126][127]

History and results

In the US, there were few studies on the relationship between educational programmes and recidivism before the 1970s.[18] The first was done at the Ohio Penitentiary in 1924, and examined 200 inmates who had completed correspondence programmes. The results, which found that inmates in the programme were more "successful" after release, established the first link in the US between prison education and reduced recidivism.[122] A 1948 study at a Wisconsin State Prison examined 680 prisoners who attended full-time study in custody for two years after their release. Results indicated a "small but statistically significant" decrease in recidivism.[18] The first extensive study undertaken to examine the relationship was called Project Newgate.[18] Beginning in 1969, and studying 145 inmates in Minnesota over five years, results indicated that inmates who participated in an education programme were more than 33% less likely to return to prison.[128][129] Other results at the time were not unanimous. A meta-analysis in 1975 and another in 1983 found that while education programmes in prison were beneficial for inmates, their effects on recidivism were inconclusive;[18] the methods used in these meta-analyses have been considered to be of poor quality by modern standards.[130] Later studies, however, consistently show that educational programmes reduce the rates of re-offending.[115] A 1987 study of Federal Bureau of Prisons inmates found that those who participated in education programmes were 8.6% less likely to return to prison,[131] and a 1997 study of 3,200 inmates in Maryland, Minnesota and Ohio found a reduction rate of 29%.[22] A meta-analysis of 15 studies done in the US during the 1990s found that, on average, inmates who attended tertiary level education in prison were 31% less likely to re-offend.[122] The RAND Corporation meta-analysis found that, on average, there was a reduction rate of 13% for inmates who participated in educational programmes,[116] and a meta-analysis of 57 studies in the US between 1980 and 2017 found the average recidivism reduction was 32%.[130] An educational programme created by the Bard Prison Initiative has a recidivism rate of 4% for people who only attended the course and 2.5% for those who completed it.[23]

An Australian study of prisoners released between July 2001 and November 2002 found that in the two years following release, inmates who participated in educational programmes were nine per cent less likely to return to prison.[87][96] A 2005 report found that in the Australian state of Queensland there was a 24–28% reduction in the rate of recidivism among inmates who completed education courses.[132] A study of 14,643 prisoners in Western Australia between 2005 and 2010 found that those who undertook prison education were 11.25% less likely to be re-incarcerated.[133] In England and Wales, a 2014 study of more than 6,000 prisoners found that those who undertook education courses were seven per cent less likely to return to prison.[134] A prison education programme in Ukraine had only three out of 168 participants (1.8%) re-offend in 2013;[66] the re-offending rate in Ukraine in 1993 was 30% within three years and 66% within five years.[135] As of 2012, the re-offending rate in the Dominican Republic for persons incarcerated in prisons with mandatory educational programmes is less than 3% after three years, compared to about 50% for those in prisons without such programmes.[26]

Effects of prison education courses have been found to be cumulative; studies show the more classes an individual takes while in prison, the less likely they will be to re-offend.[87][133] Studies also show higher level qualifications are associated with lower re-offending rates.[115][136] A 2000 study by the Texas Department of Education found that the overall re-offending rate was 40–43%, though the rate for inmates who completed an associate degree or bachelor's degree was 27.2% and 7.8% respectively.[22]

There is less data available on the relationship between educational programmes and recidivism in juvenile detention.[137] Results are difficult to measure as juvenile inmates are more likely to finish their sentences before their schooling is completed.[83] Further complications arise in countries where all juvenile inmates typically receive education, such as the US, as it is not possible to compare the effects of programmes against a "no education" control group.[138] A meta-analysis in the US in 2014 found that juveniles who completed secondary school equivalency programmes were 47% less likely to offend. Meta-analysis on the impact of vocational education on juvenile offenders, however, only showed minor improvements below the level of statistical significance.[83]

Cost and financial benefits

 
Prisoners from the Coyote Ridge Corrections Center in 2015, participating in a Bureau of Land Management programme to preserve sagebrush habitat, and the species that depend on it. Inmates needed to complete a conservation course to participate in the programme.

In 2013, the cost of providing education to a prisoner in the United States was between $1,400 and $1,744 a year, and the cost of incarceration was between $28,323 and $31,286 per inmate,[139] while in Canada the cost was on average $2,950 per year for education, and $111,202 for incarceration per male inmate; female inmates cost approximately twice this amount to incarcerate.[140][141] In England and Wales, education courses linked with reduced recidivism are priced at about £250 each as of 2014, compared to an average annual cost of £37,648 to incarcerate each inmate.[134] In Australia in 1988, the cost of incarcerating a prisoner was $40,000 a year, while the entire budget for prison education at Bathurst Correctional Complex was $120,000 per year. In order for that prison's programme to be cost effective at that time, it would have only needed to keep one person out of prison for three years.[142] As of 2015, the average cost of incarcerating a prisoner in Australia is $109,821 a year.[143]

Studies have found that due to the increased post-release employment and decreased recidivism associated with prison education, the financial savings to the community more than offset the cost of the programmes.[144] A 2003 study found that a prison education programme in Maryland reduced recidivism by 20%. Government analysts estimated that the programme was saving taxpayers more than $24 million a year based solely on the costs of re-incarceration.[145] In the State of Washington, the cost of post-secondary prison education in 2016 was $1,249 per inmate, while the total financial savings per inmate due to the courses was found to be $26,630. In 2019, the Washington State Institute for Public Policy concluded there was a 100% chance that post-secondary education programmes would produce benefits greater than the course costs,[146] while vocational and basic literacy education were both found to have a 98% chance of being cost-effective, with net savings of $17,226 and $11,364 per inmate respectively.[147] Estimates on the cost effectiveness of prison education are typically conservative, as they are unable to measure the indirect savings as a result of fewer victims, and reduced strain on police, judicial and social service systems. Taxpayers save additional money as former prisoners who gain employment pay taxes, are better able to support their families,[145][148] and are less reliant on public financial assistance.[133][142]

A 2004 study by the University of California, Los Angeles, found that spending $1 million on prison education prevents about 600 crimes, and the same amount spent on incarceration prevents only 350 crimes.[149] A 2009 study found that in the UK, every £1 spent on prison education saved taxpayers £2.50.[71] The 2013 RAND Corporation study estimated that every dollar spent on education saves taxpayers $4 to $5,[23][150][151] and that to break even on the cost of education programmes, recidivism must be reduced by between 1.9% and 2.6%.[152] According to a 2013 article by Glenn C. Altschuler and David J. Skorton in Forbes, given the relatively low cost of education and long-term financial savings "it's hard to fathom why there isn't a national, fully funded prison education program in every [US prison] facility".[21]

Funding allocation and prevalence

Both the availability and rate of participation in prison education programmes, as well as the funding available for programmes, varies greatly around the world. It is often difficult to obtain meaningful data on the amount of funding available for prison education, as the money may not come from a dedicated budget, but rather from a variety of sources. In some cases, each individual prison receives a set amount of funding, and the prison warden must determine how much, if any, is spent on education.[68] A survey in 2012 financed by the European Commission found that out of 31 countries in Europe, the majority reported no change in the budget for prison education over the previous three years. Funding was reported to have decreased for general education in three countries and increased in four. Countries that decreased funding appeared to also have decreases in prison budgets overall, while those that reported increases may have only been a reflection of the growth in prison population and corresponding increase in overall spending.[68] The budget for prison education in Norway increased from NOK 107 million in 2005 to NOK 225 million in 2012.[68] In the US, the rate of spending on prison education has decreased, even though the budget for the prison system overall has increased. In 2010, 29% of prison budgets were allocated to education, the lowest rate in three decades; in 1982, the rate was 33%.[150][153] Funding for tertiary programmes was reduced from $23 million in 2008 to $17 million in 2009.[84] In Honduras, as of 2012, 97% of the prison system's budget is spent entirely on staff salaries and food, leaving barely any funding for sanitation or other services.[26]

A study in 1994 of 34 countries found that half offered basic literacy programmes to inmates, and one-third a form of education higher than that.[154] In 2004, 27% of US inmates participated in an education course,[130] and in 2005, 35–42% of US prisons were offering tertiary education programmes. As of 2009–10, six percent of inmates in participating US states were enrolled in a tertiary programme.[84] While Kyrgyzstan's Criminal Code guarantees the right to education for inmates, the country's prison system has been plagued with problems since the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, including insufficient budgets and training for educational staff. As of 2014, six of the 31 prisons in the country offered vocational education, and 13.5% of inmates overall were enrolled in such programmes.[66] The Bahamas initiated a prison education programme in 1994, which, while successful, only had the resources to be delivered to 10.75% of inmates.[25] As of 1996, only 6% of prisoners in Venezuela had access to education, and many prisons there did not offer education at all.[155]

In 2012–13, 14,353 of Morocco's 70,675 inmates participated in educational programmes, an increase of about 20% on the previous year.[66] Educating prisoners in Morocco is particularly challenging, as about 79% of inmates are illiterate and 46% are on remand.[156] As of 2014, it is compulsory for inmates in South Africa to complete at least Grade 9 of schooling.[157] As of 2017, 50% of inmates at Naivasha prison in Kenya are undertaking formal education, and inmates across the country can complete distance education through the University of London.[158][159] As of 2016, imprisoned students in Egypt are allowed to complete university degrees, but only those that do not require practical components such as the laboratory work that science degrees would require. Prisoners are also entitled to complete their Thanaweya Amma tests.[160] As of 1992, 440 inmates (1.3% of the prison population) in Egypt were attending secondary or university education.[161] Inspectors from Human Rights Watch were shown classrooms purported to be used for teaching basic literacy at two prisons, though they reported the rooms appeared to not have not been used for some time, and also heard an allegation that inmates were only permitted to access education if they first converted to Islam.[162] Prisoners in Jordan have access to secondary and tertiary education, though female prisoners are typically given access to less educational programmes than men.[156] Roumieh Prison, which houses about half the prisoners in Lebanon, has 12% of inmates enrolled in secondary education and 7% in tertiary education as of 2014.[163] Prisoners formally had access to a wide range of industrial vocational education, however, these programmes were terminated in 1975 due to concerns about manufacturing weapons; as of 2017 the only vocational education offered is computer literacy.[164]

Both the European Convention on Human Rights and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union state that no person shall be denied the right to education, and the European Prison Rules state the education of prisoners shall "be integrated with the educational and vocational training system of the country so that after their release they may continue their education and vocational training without difficulty".[70] Despite this, prison policy documentation in several European countries does not mention education at all, and the 2012 European Commission survey found that there were 15 countries in Europe (including the UK) with less than 25% of inmates participating in educational programmes.[70] Twenty-one of the countries reported there had been an increase in participation over the last five years, five reported no change and three reported a small decrease. Participation for juveniles was considerably higher; these results were expected as juvenile inmates are generally under the mandatory age for school attendance. Eleven of the countries reported a rate of above 50%, and a further 10 countries reported a rate of over 75%. The survey also found that general education was offered to adult inmates in all prisons in 15 countries, in the majority of prisons in six countries and in less than half of prisons in 10 countries.[68]

In the UK, between 2010 and 2015, the number of inmates studying at university level dropped from 1,722 to 1,079, and the number of inmates studying at GCE Advanced Level had halved.[165] As of 2016, only 16% of those who leave prison in the UK completed an education or training placement.[166] According to a 2014 report, Belarus had 82 correctional centres, five of which were running primary and secondary schooling for inmates and a further 21 of which were offering vocational training.[66]

While inmates may face difficulty accessing education in some European countries, it is widely available or even mandatory in others. In both Germany and the Netherlands, prisoners are required to both work and study while in custody.[167] In 2013, between half and three-quarters of inmates in Germany participated in education programmes.[71] Prison education is considered to be exceptionally good in Norway; by law all inmates must have access to educational courses.[168] Similar laws are in effect in Austria,[71] and Denmark.[169] As of 2017, the European Union is funding a prison school in Jamaica.[170]

In 1996–97, the rate of prisoners undertaking education in Australia ranged from 28% in South Australia to 88% in New South Wales, and averaged 57%.[171] For 2006–07, the national average was 36.1%.[172] A 2014 report found that the decrease in participation was due to the inability of prison educational courses across the country to cope with the growth in the prison population.[173] In 2018–19, the national average was 38.0%.[174] Vocational education had the highest participation rate at 24.9%, and university level education had the lowest at 1.5%.[174] In every state and territory in Australia, the demand for prison education greatly exceeds the available space.[37][40]

A 1990 investigation by Human Rights Watch which visited seven prisons in Indonesia found that all the prisons offered some form of basic literacy classes, though very little education beyond this level. In two of the prisons, "religious education" was compulsory.[175] In 1991, 561,000 inmates in China attended education courses and 546,000 were awarded a certificate for completing such a course; there were 1.2 million inmates in China in 1991.[176] As of 2016, only one of Singapore's 14 prisons has a school for inmates. Participation at the prison, however, is increasing. In 2015, 239 inmates sat for General Certificate of Education exams, compared to 210 in 2012.[177]

Opposition

Community perceptions of prisons and prisoners were essentially a product of sensationalist media reportage, and the advocates of a commitment to rehabilitation tended to be howled down as 'do gooders' or worse. There was little place for the suggestion that the majority of prisoners might be fairly ordinary people involved in fairly extraordinary circumstances, for whom prison should provide an opportunity to re-establish themselves as citizens and workers on their (inevitable) return to society.
—Senator John Tierney commenting on public opinion to prison education in a 1996 Australian federal government report[39]

Prison education programmes are not without opposition. There is often little public sympathy for prisoners, and the issue is often not given political priority, as there may be few votes to be gained from political support.[39][44] The lack of support for prison education has been linked to sensationalist reporting on crime, including a disproportionate emphasis on violent offences, perpetuating public fear. This in turn leads to a political desire to be seen as "tough on crime".[39][70] According to the United Nations General Assembly, the "willingness of politicians" to reflect these fears has led to a "reluctance to embed prisoners' rights to education".[70]

Arguments made against prison education include that inmates do not deserve the right to be educated, doing so is being "soft on crime", and that it is a waste of taxpayers' money.[173][178][179] It has also been argued that giving imprisoned people education is "rewarding" them for having committed crimes, and that it is unfair for inmates to receive free education when law-abiding citizens must pay for it.[23][180] According to criminologist Grant Duwe, the complaint that giving prisoners free education effectively treats them better than regular citizens is valid, though the practice should nonetheless be encouraged due to the significant savings for taxpayers as a result of decreases in crime.[117]

Politicians who have advocated for prison education are often met with opposition from rival parties. In 2014, New York Governor Andrew Cuomo proposed allocating $1 million of the state's $2.8 billion budget for prisons towards a college programme for inmates. The proposal was supported by 53% of voters; however, it faced backlash from lawmakers and the opposition party, with 68% of Republicans opposing it. It was subsequently withdrawn and replaced by a programme that was privately funded instead.[23][178] In response, three Republican congressmen introduced a bill entitled the Kids Before Cons Act, which aimed to remove Pell grants and federal financial aid for prison education, but the bill was never brought to a vote.[151][178][181] Efforts to expand prison education in the Australian state of Queensland by the Labor Party have frequently been opposed by the Liberal Party; in 2016, then Shadow Minister for Police Jarrod Bleijie said that prison "shouldn't be a place where we want to invest all this money into making sure [inmates get] a better education than what our kids are".[179]

See also

References

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  2. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第97–98頁.
  3. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第25–27頁.
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第67頁.
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Smith 2017a，第226頁.
  6. ^ Nordic Council of Ministers 2005，第47–48頁.
  7. ^ Andersen, Anna. Doing Time in Iceland. The Reykjavík Grapevine. September 27, 2011. （原始內容存檔於May 18, 2018）. 
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  9. ^ Weschler1992，第1頁.
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  13. ^ McConville 2015，第409, 410頁.
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  15. ^ Belyaeva, Larisa I. The Role of the Public in Prison Transformations of the 19th Century in Russia (PDF). Пенитенциарная наука. 2021, 15 (1): 134–144 [2021-10-20]. doi:10.46741/2686-9764-2021-15-1-134-144  . （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-05-08）. 
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  18. ^ 18.00 18.01 18.02 18.03 18.04 18.05 18.06 18.07 18.08 18.09 Linden, Rick; Perry, Linda. The Effectiveness of Prison Education Programs . Journal of Offender Counseling Services Rehabilitation. 1983, 6 (4): 43–57. doi:10.1080/10509674.1982.9963696. 
  19. ^ International Prison Commission 1900，第28頁.
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Bibliography


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