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詹姆斯·乔伊斯
James Joyce
约1918年的乔伊斯
出生(1882-02-02)1882年2月2日
 英国爱尔兰都柏林拉斯加（英语：Rathgar）
逝世1941年1月13日(1941岁—01—13)（58岁）
 瑞士苏黎世
职业小说家、诗人
代表作
配偶诺拉·巴纳克尔（英语：Nora Barnacle）
子女乔治、露西娅（英语：Lucia Joyce）

詹姆斯·奥古斯丁·阿洛伊修斯·乔伊斯（英语：James Augustine Aloysius Joyce，1882年2月2日—1941年1月13日），爱尔兰小说家、诗人、文学评论家。他为现代主义先锋派运动做出了贡献，被视为20世纪最具影响力和重要的作家之一。乔伊斯的小说《尤利西斯》（1922年）是一部里程碑式的作品，其中荷马的《奥德赛》情节被以各种文学风格——特别是意识流——进行平行呈现。其他著名作品包括短篇小说集《都柏林人》（1914年），以及小说《一个青年艺术家的画像》（1916年）和《芬尼根的守灵夜》（1939年）。他还创作了三本诗集、一部戏剧、书信和偶尔的新闻作品。

乔伊斯出生于都柏林的一个中产家庭。他曾就读于基尔代尔郡的耶稣会克朗戈斯伍德学院，之后短暂就读于由基督兄弟会管理的奥康奈尔学校。尽管父亲的财务状况难以预测，家庭生活混乱，他在耶稣会贝尔维第学院表现出色，并于1902年毕业于都柏林大学学院。1904年，他遇到了未来的妻子诺拉·巴纳克尔，随后他们搬到了欧洲大陆。他曾在普拉短暂工作，随后搬到奥匈帝国的的里雅斯特，担任英语教师。除在罗马担任八个月的函电职员和三次返回都柏林外，乔伊斯一直居住在那里直到1915年。在的里雅斯特期间，他出版了诗集《室内乐》和短篇小说集《都柏林人》，并开始在英国杂志《自我主义者》上连载《一个青年艺术家的画像》。在第一次世界大战的大部分时间里，乔伊斯居住在瑞士苏黎世，创作了《尤利西斯》。战后，他短暂返回的里雅斯特，然后于1920年搬到巴黎，这成为他直到1940年的主要居所。

《尤利西斯》于1922年在巴黎首次出版，但因被认为淫秽，其在英国和美国的出版被禁止。直到20世纪30年代中期，出版才最终合法化，此前该书的副本被偷运到两国，盗版也被印刷。乔伊斯于1923年开始他的下一部重要作品《芬尼根的守灵夜》，并于16年后的1939年出版。在这段时间里，乔伊斯广泛旅行。他和诺拉于1931年在伦敦举行了民事婚礼。他多次前往瑞士，频繁为日益严重的眼疾寻求治疗，并为女儿露西亚寻求心理帮助。第二次世界大战期间，德国占领法国后，乔伊斯于1940年搬回苏黎世。他于1941年因胃溃疡穿孔手术后去世，享年58岁。

《尤利西斯》经常在伟大书籍的排行榜上名列前茅，对他作品的学术研究广泛且持续。许多作家、电影制片人和其他艺术家都受到他风格创新的影响，如他对细节的精细关注、内心独白的运用、文字游戏，以及对传统情节和人物发展的彻底变革。尽管他成年后的大部分时间都在国外度过，但他的虚构世界以都柏林为中心，人物多是他在那里的家人、敌人和朋友的化身。尤其是《尤利西斯》，其背景设定在城市的街道和小巷中。乔伊斯曾说：“对我自己而言，我总是写都柏林，因为如果我能触及都柏林的核心，我就能触及世界上所有城市的核心。具体中包含着普遍。”[1]

早年生活

 
乔伊斯六岁时的照片，1888年

乔伊斯于1882年2月2日出生在爱尔兰都柏林拉斯加尔的布莱顿广场41号[2]，父母是约翰·斯坦尼斯劳斯·乔伊斯和玛丽·简（昵称“梅”，本姓默里）。他是十个幸存兄弟姐妹中的长子。1882年2月5日，他在特伦纽尔附近的圣约瑟夫教堂按照罗马天主教的仪式受洗，名字为詹姆斯·奥古斯丁·乔伊斯[a]，施洗的是约翰·奥穆洛伊牧师。[b]他的教父母是菲利普和埃伦·麦肯恩。[7]约翰·斯坦尼斯劳斯·乔伊斯的家族来自科克郡的费尔莫伊，拥有一家小型的盐和石灰厂。乔伊斯的祖父詹姆斯·奥古斯丁娶了埃伦·奥康奈尔，她是科克市议员、经营布料生意和其他物业的约翰·奥康奈尔的女儿。埃伦的家族声称与政治领袖丹尼尔·奥康奈尔有亲戚关系，他曾在1829年为爱尔兰人争取到天主教解放。[8]

1887年，乔伊斯的父亲被都柏林市政府任命为税收征收员。全家搬到了距离都柏林19公里的时尚小镇布雷。乔伊斯在此期间被狗袭击，导致他一生都对狗心存恐惧。[9][c]他后来还对雷雨产生了恐惧[11]，这是因为一位迷信的姨妈告诉他雷雨是上帝愤怒的象征。[12][d]

1891年，九岁的乔伊斯写了诗《你也一样，希利》，悼念查尔斯·斯图尔特·帕内尔之死，他的父亲将这首诗印刷并分发给朋友。[14]诗中表达了老乔伊斯的情感[15]，他对帕内尔被爱尔兰天主教会、爱尔兰议会党和英国自由党背叛感到愤怒，这种背叛导致在英国议会中争取爱尔兰自治的努力失败。[16]这种背叛感，尤其是来自教会的，给乔伊斯留下了持久的印象，他在生活和艺术中都表达了这种感受。[17]

同年，由于父亲的酗酒和财务管理不善，家境开始贫困。[18]1891年11月，约翰·乔伊斯的名字被刊登在《斯塔布斯公报》上，这是一个债务人和破产者的黑名单，他因此被暂时停职。[19]1893年1月，他被解雇，只领取减少的养老金。[20]

1888年，乔伊斯开始在克朗戈斯伍德学院接受教育，这是一所位于基尔代尔郡克莱恩附近的耶稣会寄宿学校，但由于父亲无法继续支付学费，他于1891年不得不离开。[21]他在家自学，短暂就读于都柏林北里士满街的基督兄弟会奥康奈尔学校。随后，乔伊斯的父亲偶遇了认识他们家的耶稣会神父约翰·康米。康米安排乔伊斯和他的弟弟斯坦尼斯劳斯从1893年开始免费就读耶稣会在都柏林的学校——贝尔维第学院。[22]1895年，13岁的乔伊斯被同学选入圣母善会。[23]乔伊斯在贝尔维第学院度过了五年，他的智力形成受到了耶稣会《学习纲要》（Ratio Studiorum）中规定的教育原则的指导。[24]他展示了自己的写作才能，在毕业前的最后两年里，英语作文获得了第一名[25]，1898年毕业。[26]

大学时期

 
都柏林纽曼之家，乔伊斯时代的大学学院[27]

1898年，乔伊斯入读大学学院[e]，主修英语、法语、意大利语。[30]在此期间，他接触到了托马斯·阿奎那的经院哲学，这对他余生的思想产生了深远影响。[31]他活跃于都柏林的戏剧和文学圈子，他最亲密的同事包括他那一代的爱尔兰领军人物，最著名的有乔治·克兰西、汤姆·凯特尔和弗朗西斯·希希-斯凯夫顿。[32]他在这段时间结识的许多朋友都出现在他的作品中。[33]他的第一篇出版物是对易卜生的《当我们死而复生时》的赞扬性评论，发表于1900年的《半月评论》。受易卜生作品的启发，乔伊斯用挪威语给他写了一封粉丝信[34][f]，并创作了戏剧《辉煌的事业》[37]，但后来将其销毁。[38][g]

1901年，爱尔兰全国人口普查将乔伊斯列为19岁的未婚学生，会说爱尔兰语和英语，和父母、六个姐妹和三个兄弟一起居住在都柏林克朗塔夫的皇家露台（现为因弗内斯路）。[40]同年，他结识了奥利弗·圣约翰·戈加蒂[41]，他是《尤利西斯》中巴克·马利根的原型。[33]11月，乔伊斯写了一篇名为《暴民之日》的文章，批评爱尔兰文学剧院不愿意上演易卜生、列夫·托尔斯泰和格哈特·豪普特曼等剧作家的作品。[42]他反对怀旧的爱尔兰民粹主义，主张一种外向的、国际化的文学。[43]由于他提到了嘉布列·邓南遮的小说《火》[44]，而该书在罗马天主教的禁书名单上，他的大学杂志拒绝刊登这篇文章。乔伊斯和也有文章被拒的希希-斯凯夫顿一起将他们的文章印刷并分发。亚瑟·格里菲斯在他的报纸《联合爱尔兰人》上谴责了对乔伊斯作品的审查。[45]

1902年10月，乔伊斯从爱尔兰皇家大学毕业。他考虑学习医学[46]，开始在都柏林的天主教大学医学院听课。[47]当医学院拒绝提供辅导职位来资助他的教育时，他离开都柏林前往巴黎学习医学[48]，并获准在巴黎医学院参加物理、化学和生物学证书课程。[49]到1903年1月底，他放弃了学习医学的计划[50]，但仍留在巴黎，经常在圣热内维耶夫图书馆读书到深夜。[51]他经常写信回家，声称由于水质、寒冷的天气和饮食的改变而健康不佳[52]，向家人请求他们难以负担的资助。[53]

大学毕业后的都柏林岁月

 
都柏林圣斯蒂芬绿地上的乔伊斯半身像，马乔里·菲茨吉本雕刻

1903年4月，乔伊斯得知母亲病危[h]，立即返回爱尔兰。[60]他照顾她，朗读一些草稿，这些草稿最终融入了他未完成的小说《斯蒂芬英雄》。[61]在她生命的最后几天，她试图劝说他去忏悔和领圣餐，但未能成功。[62][i]她于8月13日去世。[64]之后，乔伊斯和斯坦尼斯劳斯拒绝与家人其他成员一起在她床边跪下祈祷。[65]约翰·乔伊斯在她去世后的几个月里酗酒和暴力行为加剧，家庭开始瓦解。[66]乔伊斯大部分时间与戈加蒂和他的医学院同学一起狂欢[67]，并试图通过撰写书评勉强维持生计。[68]

乔伊斯的生活在1904年6月10日开始发生改变，那天他遇到了诺拉·巴纳克尔。她是一位来自戈尔韦市的二十岁女子，在都柏林做女佣。[69]1904年6月16日，他们第一次一起出游，漫步在都柏林郊区的林森德[j]，诺拉在那里为他手淫。[72]这个事件被纪念为《尤利西斯》故事发生的日期，在流行文化中被称为“布鲁姆日”，以纪念小说的主角利奥波德·布鲁姆。[73]这开启了一段持续了37年的关系，直到乔伊斯去世。[74]不久之后，乔伊斯与同事们狂欢后[75]，在圣斯蒂芬绿地搭讪一名年轻女子，结果被她的同伴殴打。他被父亲的熟人阿尔弗雷德·H·亨特扶起并掸去灰尘，亨特将他带回家照料伤势。亨特据传是一位犹太人，妻子不忠，成为了《尤利西斯》主人公利奥波德·布鲁姆的原型之一。[76]

乔伊斯是一位有才华的男高音，曾考虑成为一名音乐表演者。[77][k]1904年5月8日，他参加了费什·科伊尔音乐比赛[79]，这是为有前途的作曲家、演奏家和歌手举办的爱尔兰音乐赛事。[80]在比赛前的几个月里，乔伊斯跟随两位声乐教师——贝内代托·帕尔米耶里和文森特·奥布莱恩学习声乐。[81]他通过典当一些书籍支付了报名费。[82]比赛中，乔伊斯需要演唱三首歌曲。他前两首表现出色，但当被告知必须视唱第三首时，他拒绝了。[83]尽管如此，乔伊斯还是获得了第三名。[l]赛后，帕尔米耶里写信告诉乔伊斯，比赛评委、著名歌曲《登山缆车》的作曲家路易吉·丹扎[88]对他的声音高度评价，如果不是因为视唱和训练不足，原本会给他第一名。[89]帕尔米耶里甚至提出之后为乔伊斯免费教授声乐课。乔伊斯拒绝了这些课程，但当年仍继续在都柏林的音乐会上演唱。[90]他在8月27日的一场音乐会上的表现，可能巩固了诺拉对他的忠诚。[91]虽然乔伊斯最终没有追求歌唱事业，但他在文学作品中包含了数千个音乐典故。[92]

整个1904年，乔伊斯努力提升自己的文学声誉。1月7日，他尝试出版一部探讨美学的散文作品《艺术家的画像》[93]，但被知识杂志《达纳》拒绝。随后，他将其改写成一部关于自己青年时期的小说，名为《斯蒂芬英雄》，他为之奋斗了多年但最终放弃。[m]他写了一首名为《神圣办公室》的讽刺诗[95]，模仿了威廉·巴特勒·叶芝的《致即将到来的爱尔兰》[96][n]，再次嘲讽了爱尔兰文学复兴运动。[99]这首诗也被拒绝出版，这次的理由是“不神圣”。[100]他还在此期间写了诗集《室内乐》[101]，但也被拒绝。[102][o]他确实发表了三首诗，一首在《达纳》[105]，两首在《演讲者》上[106]，乔治·威廉·罗素[p]还在《爱尔兰家园》上发表了乔伊斯的三篇短篇小说。这些故事——《姐妹们》、《艾弗琳》和《赛后》——成为《都柏林人》的开端。[109]

1904年9月，乔伊斯在找住所方面遇到了困难，搬进了戈加蒂租下的都柏林附近的一座马特洛塔。[110]然而，不到一周，当戈加蒂和另一位室友德莫特·切内维克斯·特伦奇在半夜朝悬挂在乔伊斯床上方的锅具开枪时，乔伊斯离开了。[111]在格雷戈里夫人和其他几位熟人的资助下，不到一个月后，乔伊斯和诺拉离开了爱尔兰。[112]

1904–1906: Zürich, Pula and Trieste

Zürich and Pula

In October 1904, Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile.[113] They briefly stopped in London and Paris to secure funds[114] before heading on to Zürich. Joyce had been informed through an agent in England that there was a vacancy at the Berlitz Language School, but when he arrived there was no position.[115] The couple stayed in Zürich for a little over a week.[116] The director of the school sent Joyce on to Trieste,[117] which was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until the First World War.[q] There was no vacancy there either.[r] The director of the school in Trieste, Almidano Artifoni, secured a position for him in Pola, then Austria-Hungary's major naval base,[s] where he mainly taught English to naval officers.[119] Less than one month after the couple had left Ireland, Nora had already become pregnant.[120] Joyce soon became close friends with Alessandro Francini Bruni, the director of the school at Pola,[121] and his wife Clothilde. By the beginning of 1905, both families were living together.[122] Joyce kept writing when he could. He completed a short story for Dubliners, "Clay", and worked on his novel Stephen Hero.[123] He disliked Pola, calling it a "back-of-God-speed place—a naval Siberia",[124] and soon as a job became available, he went to Trieste.[125][t]

 
The Caffè Stella Polare in Trieste was often visited by Joyce.[127]
 
Joyce's statue in Trieste

First stay in Trieste

Joyce moved to Trieste in March 1905 aged 23. He taught English at the Berlitz school.[128] That June he published the satirical poem "Holy Office".[129] After Nora gave birth to their first child, Giorgio,[u] on 27 July 1905,[131] He convinced Stanislaus to move to Trieste and attained a position for him at the Berlitz school. Stanislaus moved in with Joyce as soon as he arrived that October, although most of his salary went directly to supporting Joyce's family.[132] In February 1906, the Joyce household once more shared an apartment with the Francini Brunis.[133]

During this period Joyce completing 24 chapters of Stephen Hero[134] and all but the final story of Dubliners,[135] but was unable to get Dubliners published. Although the London publisher Grant Richards had a contract with Joyce, the printers were unwilling to print passages they found controversial; English law could not protect them if brought to court for circulating indecent language.[136] Richards and Joyce went back and forth trying to find a solution where the book could avoid legal liability while preserving Joyce's artistic integrity. As they negotiated, Richards began to scrutinise the stories more carefully. He became concerned that the book might damage his publishing house's reputation and eventually backed down from his agreement.[137]

Trieste was Joyce's main residence until 1920.[138] Although he would temporarily stay in Rome, travel to Dublin and emigrating to Zürich during World War I— it became a second Dublin for him[139] and played an important role in his development as a writer.[140][v] He completed Dubliners, reworked Stephen Hero into A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, wrote his only published play Exiles and decided to make Ulysses a full-length novel as he worked through his notes and jottings.[142] He worked out the characters of Leopold and Molly Bloom in Trieste.[143] Many of the novel's details were taken from Joyce's observation of the city and its people,[144] and some of its stylistic innovations appear to have been influenced by Futurism.[145][w] There are even words of the Triestine dialect in Finnegans Wake.[147] Joyce was introduced to the Greek Orthodox liturgy in Trieste. Under its influence, he rewrote his first short story and would later draw on it in creating the liturgical parodies in Ulysses.[148]

1906–1915: Rome, Trieste, and sojourns to Dublin

Rome

 
Monument to Giordano Bruno at the Campo de' Fiori by Ettore Ferrari. Joyce admired Bruno[149] and attended the procession in his honour while in Rome.[150]

In late May 1906, the head of the Berlitz school ran away after embezzling its funds. Artifoni took over the school but let Joyce know that he could only afford to keep one brother on.[151] Tired of Trieste and discouraged that he could not get a publisher for Dubliners, Joyce found an advertisement for a correspondence clerk in a Roman bank that paid twice his current salary.[152] He was hired for the position and went to Rome at the end of July.[153]

Joyce felt he accomplished very little during his brief stay in Rome,[154] but it had a large impact on his writing.[155] Though his new job took up most of his time, he revised Dubliners and worked on Stephen Hero.[156] Rome was the birthplace of the idea for "The Dead", which would become the final story of Dubliners,[157] and for Ulysses,[158] which was originally conceived as a short story.[x] His stay in the city was one of his inspirations for Exiles.[160] While there, he read the socialist historian Guglielmo Ferrero in depth.[161] Ferrero's anti-heroic interpretations of history, arguments against militarism, and conflicted attitudes toward Jews[162] would find their way into Ulysses, particularly in the character of Leopold Bloom.[163] In London, Elkin Mathews published Chamber Music on the recommendation of the British poet Arthur Symons.[164] Nonetheless, Joyce was dissatisfied with his job, had exhausted his finances, and realised he would need additional support when he learned Nora was pregnant again.[165] He left Rome after only seven months.[166]

Second stay in Trieste

 
Trieste circa 1907

Joyce returned to Trieste in March 1907, but was unable to find full-time work. He went back to being an English instructor, working part-time for Berlitz and giving private lessons.[167] The author Ettore Schmitz, better known by pen name Italo Svevo, was one of his students. Svevo was a Catholic of Jewish origin who became one of the models for Leopold Bloom.[168] Joyce learned much of what he knew about Judaism from him.[169] The two became lasting friends and mutual critics.[170] Svevo supported Joyce's identity as an author, helping him work through his writer's block with A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man.[171] Roberto Prezioso, editor of the Italian newspaper Piccolo della Sera, was another of Joyce's students. He helped Joyce financially by commissioning him to write for the newspaper. Joyce quickly produced three articles aimed toward the Italian irredentists in Trieste. He indirectly paralleled their desire for independence from Austria-Hungary with the struggle of the Irish from British rule.[172] Joyce earned additional money by giving a series of lectures on Ireland and the arts at Trieste's Università Popolare.[173] In May, Joyce was struck by an attack of rheumatic fever,[174] which left him incapacitated for weeks.[y] The illness exacerbated eye problems that plagued him for the rest of his life.[180] While Joyce was still recovering from the attack, Lucia was born on 26 July 1907.[181][z] During his convalescence, he was able to finish "The Dead", the last story of Dubliners.[183]

Although a heavy drinker,[184] Joyce gave up alcohol for a period in 1908.[185] He reworked Stephen Hero as the more concise and interior A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. He completed the third chapter by April[186] and translated John Millington Synge's Riders to the Sea into Italian with the help of Nicolò Vidacovich.[187] He even took singing lessons again.[188] Joyce had been looking for an English publisher for Dubliners but was unable to find one, so he submitted it to a Dublin publisher, Maunsel and Company, owned by George Roberts.[189]

Visits to Dublin

 
Dublin in 1909

In July 1909, Joyce received a year's advance payment from one of his students and returned to Ireland to introduce Giorgio to both sides of the family, his own in Dublin and Nora's in Galway.[190] He unsuccessfully applied for the position of Chair of Italian at his alma mater, which had become University College Dublin.[191] He met with Roberts, who seemed positive about publishing the Dubliners.[192] He returned to Trieste in September with his sister Eva, who helped Nora run the home.[193] Joyce only stayed in Trieste for a month, as he almost immediately came upon the idea of starting a cinema in Dublin, which unlike Trieste had none. He quickly got the backing of some Triestine businessmen and returned to Dublin in October, launching Ireland's first cinema, the Volta Cinematograph.[194] It was initially well-received, but fell apart after Joyce left.[195] He returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister, Eileen.[196][aa]

From 1910 to 1912, Joyce still lacked a reliable income. This brought his conflicts with Stanislaus, who was frustrated with lending him money, to their peak.[200] In 1912, Prezioso arranged for him to lecture on Hamlet for the Minerva Society between November 1912 and February 1913.[201] Joyce once more lectured at the Università Popolare on various topics in English literature and applied for a teaching diploma in English at the University of Padua.[202] He performed very well on the qualification tests, but was denied because Italy did not recognise his degree from an Irish university. In 1912, Joyce and his family returned to Dublin briefly in the summer.[203] While there, his three-year-long struggle with Roberts over the publication of Dubliners[204] came to an end as Roberts refused to publish the book due to concerns of libel. Roberts had the printed sheets destroyed, though Joyce was able to obtain a copy of the proof sheets.[ab] When Joyce returned to Trieste, he wrote an invective against Roberts, "Gas from a Burner".[206] He never went to Dublin again.[207]

Publication of Dubliners and A Portrait

Joyce's fortunes changed for the better in 1913 when Richards agreed to publish Dubliners. It was issued on 15 June 1914,[208] eight and a half years since Joyce had first submitted it to him.[209] Around the same time, he found an unexpected advocate in Ezra Pound, who was living in London.[ac] On the advice of Yeats,[211] Pound wrote to Joyce asking if he could include a poem from Chamber Music, "I Hear an Army Charging upon the Land" in the journal Des Imagistes. They struck up a correspondence that lasted until the late 1930s. Pound became Joyce's promoter, helping ensure that Joyce's works were both published and publicized.[212]

After Pound persuaded Dora Marsden to serially publish A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in the London literary magazine The Egoist,[213] Joyce's pace of writing increased. He completed A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by 1914;[214] resumed Exiles, completing it in 1915;[215] started the novelette Giacomo Joyce, which he eventually abandoned;[216] and began drafting Ulysses.[217]

In August 1914, World War I broke out. Although Joyce and Stanislaus were subjects of the United Kingdom, which was now at war with Austria-Hungary, they remained in Trieste. Even when Stanislaus, who had publicly expressed his sympathy for the Triestine irredentists, was interned at the beginning of January 1915, Joyce chose to stay. In May 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary,[218] and less than a month later Joyce took his family to Zürich in neutral Switzerland.[219]

1915–1920: Zürich and Trieste

Zürich

 
Zürich, Switzerland where Joyce lived 1915–1919

Joyce arrived in Zürich as a double exile: he was an Irishman with a British passport and a Triestine on parole from Austria-Hungary.[220] To get to Switzerland, he had to promise the Austro-Hungarian officials that he would not help the Allies during the war, and he and his family had to leave almost all of their possessions in Trieste.[221] During the war, he was kept under surveillance by both the British and Austro-Hungarian secret services.[222]

Joyce's first concern was earning a living. One of Nora's relatives sent them a small sum to cover the first few months. Pound and Yeats worked with the British government to provide a stipend from the Royal Literary Fund in 1915 and a grant from the British civil list the following year.[223] Eventually, Joyce received large regular sums from the editor Harriet Shaw Weaver, who operated The Egoist, and the psychotherapist Edith Rockefeller McCormick, who lived in Zürich studying under Carl Jung.[224] Weaver financially supported Joyce throughout the entirety of his life and even paid for his funeral.[225] Between 1917 and the beginning of 1919, Joyce was financially secure and lived quite well;[226] the family sometimes stayed in Locarno in the Italian-speaking region of Switzerland.[227] However, health problems remained a constant issue. During their time in Zürich, both Joyce and Nora suffered illnesses that were diagnosed as "nervous breakdowns"[228] and he had to undergo many eye surgeries.[229]

Ulysses

During the war, Zürich was the centre of a vibrant expatriate community. Joyce's regular evening hangout was the Cafe Pfauen,[230] where he got to know a number of the artists living in the city at the time, including the sculptor August Suter[231] and the painter Frank Budgen.[232] He often used the time spent with them as material for Ulysses.[233] He made the acquaintance of the writer Stefan Zweig,[234] who organised the premiere of Exiles in Munich in August 1919.[235] He became aware of Dada, which was coming into its own at the Cabaret Voltaire.[236][ad] He may have even met the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir Lenin at the Cafe Odeon,[238] a place they both frequented.[239]

Joyce kept up his interest in music. He met Ferruccio Busoni,[240] staged music with Otto Luening, and learned music theory from Philipp Jarnach.[241] Much of what Joyce learned about musical notation and counterpoint found its way into Ulysses, particularly the "Sirens" section.[242]

Joyce avoided public discussion of the war's politics and maintained strict neutrality.[243] He made few comments about the 1916 Easter Rising in Ireland; although he was sympathetic to the Irish independence movement,[244] he disagreed with its violence.[245][ae] He stayed intently focused on Ulysses[247] and the ongoing struggle to get his work published. Some of the serial instalments of "The Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" in The Egoist had been censored by the printers, but the entire novel was published by B. W. Huebsch in 1916.[248] In 1918, Pound got a commitment from Margaret Caroline Anderson, the owner and editor of the New York-based literary magazine The Little Review, to publish Ulysses serially.[249]

The English Players

 
The Pfauen in Zürich. Joyce's preferred hangout was the cafe, which used to be on the right corner. The theatre staged the English Players.[250]

Joyce co-founded an acting company, the English Players, and became its business manager. The company was pitched to the British government as a contribution to the war effort,[251] and mainly staged works by Irish playwrights, such as Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, and John Millington Synge.[252] For Synge's Riders to the Sea, Nora played a principal role and Joyce sang offstage,[253] which he did again when Robert Browning's In a Balcony was staged. He hoped the company would eventually stage his play, Exiles,[254] but his participation in the English Players declined in the wake of the Great Influenza epidemic of 1918, though the company continued until 1920.[255]

Joyce's work with the English Players involved him in a lawsuit. Henry Wilfred Carr, a wounded war veteran and British consul, accused Joyce of underpaying him for his role in The Importance of Being Earnest. Carr sued for compensation; Joyce countersued for libel. The cases were resolved in 1919, with Joyce winning the compensation case but losing the one for libel.[256] The incident ended up creating acrimony between the British consulate and Joyce for the rest of his time in Zürich.[257]

Third stay in Trieste

By 1919, Joyce was in financial straits again. McCormick stopped paying her stipend, partly because he refused to submit to psychoanalysis from Jung,[258] and Zürich had become expensive to live in after the war. Furthermore, he was becoming isolated as the city's emigres returned home. In October 1919, Joyce's family moved back to Trieste, but it had changed. The Austro-Hungarian empire had ceased to exist, and Trieste was now an Italian city in post-war recovery.[259] Eight months after his return, Joyce went to Sirmione, Italy, to meet Pound, who made arrangements for him to move to Paris.[260] Joyce and his family packed their belongings and headed for Paris in June 1920.[261]

1920–1941: Paris and Zürich

Paris

 
James Joyce in a September 1922 issue of Shadowland photographed by Man Ray

When Joyce and his family arrived in Paris in July 1920, their visit was intended to be a layover on their way to London.[262] For the first four months, he stayed with Ludmila Savitzky​（法语）[263] and met Sylvia Beach, who ran the Rive Gauche bookshop, Shakespeare and Company.[264] Beach quickly became an important person in Joyce's life, providing financial support,[265] and becoming one of Joyce's publishers.[266] Through Beach and Pound, Joyce quickly joined the intellectual circle of Paris and was integrated into the international modernist artist community.[267] Joyce met Valery Larbaud, who championed Joyce's works to the French[268] and supervised the French translation of Ulysses.[269] Paris became the Joyces' regular residence for twenty years, though they never settled into a single location for long.[270]

Publication of Ulysses

Joyce finished writing Ulysses near the end of 1921, but had difficulties getting it published. With financial backing from the lawyer John Quinn,[271][af] Margaret Anderson and her co-editor Jane Heap had begun serially publishing it in The Little Review in March 1918[272] but in January and May 1919, two instalments were suppressed as obscene and potentially subversive.[273] In September 1920, an unsolicited instalment of the "Nausicaa" episode was sent to the daughter of a New York attorney associated with the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, leading to an official complaint.[271] The trial proceedings continued until February 1921, when both Anderson and Healy, defended by Quinn, were fined $50 each for publishing obscenity[274] and ordered to cease publishing Ulysses.[275] Huebsch, who had expressed interest in publishing the novel in the United States, decided against it after the trial.[276] Weaver was unable to find an English printer,[277] and the novel was banned for obscenity in the United Kingdom in 1922, where it was blacklisted until 1936.[278]

Page saying 'ULYSSES by JAMES JOYCE will be published in the Autumn of 1921 by "SHAKESPEARE AND COMPANY" – SYLVIA BEACH – 8, RUE DUPUYTREN, PARIS – VIe' with drawing of Shakespeare holding a book
Announcement of the initial publication of Ulysses

Almost immediately after Anderson and Healy were ordered to stop printing Ulysses, Beach agreed to publish it through her bookshop.[279] She had books mailed to people in Paris and the United States who had subscribed to get a copy; Weaver mailed books from Beach's plates to subscribers in England.[280] Soon, the postal officials of both countries began confiscating the books.[281] They were then smuggled into both countries.[282][ag] Because the work had no copyright in the United States at this time, "bootleg" versions appeared, including pirate versions from publisher Samuel Roth, who only ceased his actions in 1928 when a court enjoined publication.[284] Ulysses was not legally published in the United States until 1934 after Judge John M. Woolsey ruled in United States v. One Book Called Ulysses that the book was not obscene.[285]

Finnegans Wake

In 1923, Joyce began his next work, an experimental novel that eventually became Finnegans Wake.[286][ah] It would take sixteen years to complete.[288] At first, Joyce called it Work in Progress, which was the name Ford Madox Ford used in April 1924 when he published its "Mamalujo" episode in his magazine, The Transatlantic Review. In 1926, Eugene and Maria Jolas serialised the novel in their magazine, transition. When parts of the novel first came out, some of Joyce's supporters—like Stanislaus, Pound, and Weaver—[289] wrote negatively about it,[290] and it was criticised by writers like Seán Ó Faoláin, Wyndham Lewis, and Rebecca West.[291] In response, Joyce and the Jolases organised the publication of a collection of positive essays titled Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress, which included writings by Samuel Beckett and William Carlos Williams.[292] An additional purpose of publishing these essays was to market Work in Progress to a larger audience.[293] Joyce publicly revealed the novel's title as Finnegans Wake in 1939,[294] the same year he completed it. It was published in London by Faber and Faber[295] with the assistance of T. S. Eliot.[296][ai]

Joyce's health problems afflicted him throughout his Paris years. He had over a dozen eye operations,[298] but his vision severely declined.[299] By 1930, he was practically blind in the left eye and his right eye functioned poorly.[300] He even had all of his teeth removed because of infection.[301] At one point, Joyce became worried that he could not finish Finnegans Wake, asking the Irish author James Stephens to complete it if something should happen.[302]

Joyce's financial problems continued. Although he was now earning a good income from his investments and royalties, his spending habits often left him without available money.[303] Despite these issues, he published Pomes Penyeach in 1927, a collection of thirteen poems that he wrote in Trieste, Zürich and Paris.[304]

Marriage in London

 
1966 drawing of Joyce by Adolf Hoffmeister

In 1930, Joyce began thinking of establishing a residence in London once more,[305] primarily to assure that Giorgio, who had just married Helen Fleischmann, would have his inheritance secured under British law.[306] Joyce moved to London, obtained a long-term lease on a flat, registered on the electoral roll, and became liable for jury service. After living together for twenty-seven years, Joyce and Nora got married at the Register Office in Kensington on 4 July 1931.[307] Joyce stayed in London for at least six months to establish his residency, but abandoned his flat and returned to Paris later in the year when Lucia showed signs of mental illness. He planned to return, but never did and later became disaffected with England.[308]

In later years, Joyce lived in Paris but frequently travelled to Switzerland for eye surgery[aj] or for treatment for Lucia,[310] who was diagnosed with schizophrenia.[311] Lucia was analysed by Carl Jung, who had previously written that Ulysses was similar to schizophrenic writing.[312][ak] Jung suggested that she and her father were two people going into a river, except that Joyce was diving and Lucia was falling.[314] In spite of Joyce's attempts to help Lucia, she remained permanently institutionalised after his death.[315]

Final return to Zürich

In the late 1930s, Joyce became increasingly concerned about the rise of fascism and antisemitism.[316] As early as 1938, Joyce was involved in helping a number of Jews escape Nazi persecution.[317] After the fall of France in 1940, Joyce and his family fled from Nazi occupation, returning to Zürich a final time.[318]

Death

 
Grave of James Joyce in Zürich-Fluntern; sculpture by Milton Hebald

On 11 January 1941, Joyce underwent surgery in Zürich for a perforated duodenal ulcer. He fell into a coma the following day. He awoke at 2 am on 13 January 1941, and asked a nurse to call his wife and son. They were en route when he died 15 minutes later, at age 58.[319]

His body was buried in the Fluntern Cemetery in Zürich. Swiss tenor Max Meili sang "Addio terra, addio cielo" from Monteverdi's L'Orfeo at the burial service.[320] Joyce had been a subject of the United Kingdom all of his life, and although two senior Irish diplomats were in Switzerland at the time, only the British consul attended the funeral. When Joseph Walshe, secretary at the Department of External Affairs in Dublin, was informed of Joyce's death by Frank Cremins, chargé d'affaires at Bern, Walshe responded, "Please wire details of Joyce's death. If possible find out did he die a Catholic? Express sympathy with Mrs Joyce and explain inability to attend funeral."[321] Buried originally in an ordinary grave, Joyce was moved in 1966 to a more prominent "honour grave", with a seated portrait statue by American artist Milton Hebald nearby. Nora, whom he had married in 1931, survived him by 10 years. She is buried by his side, as is their son Giorgio, who died in 1976.[321]

After Joyce's death, the Irish government declined Nora's request to permit the repatriation of Joyce's remains,[322] despite being persistently lobbied by the American diplomat John J. Slocum.[321] In October 2019, a motion was put to Dublin City Council to plan and budget for the costs of the exhumations and reburials of Joyce and his family somewhere in Dublin, subject to his family's wishes.[323] The proposal immediately became controversial, with the Irish Times commenting: " ... it is hard not to suspect that there is a calculating, even mercantile, aspect to contemporary Ireland's relationship to its great writers, whom we are often more keen to 'celebrate', and if possible monetise, than read".[324]

Political views

 
1934 portrait of James Joyce by Jacques-Émile Blanche

Throughout his life, Joyce stayed actively interested in Irish national politics[325] and in its relationship to British colonialism.[326] He studied socialism[327] and anarchism.[328][al] He attended socialist meetings and expressed an individualist view influenced by Benjamin Tucker's philosophy and Oscar Wilde's essay "The Soul of Man Under Socialism".[332] He described his opinions as "those of a socialist artist".[333] Joyce's direct engagement in politics was strongest during his time in Trieste, when he submitted newspaper articles, gave lectures, and wrote letters advocating for Ireland's independence from British rule.[334] After leaving Trieste, Joyce's direct involvement in politics waned,[335] but his later works still reflect his commitment.[336] He remained sympathetic to individualism and critical of coercive ideologies such as nationalism.[337][am] His novels address socialist, anarchist and Irish nationalist issues.[340] Ulysses has been read as a novel critiquing the effect of British colonialism on the Irish people.[341] Finnegans Wake has been read as a work that investigates the divisive issues of Irish politics,[342] the interrelationship between colonialism and race,[343] and the coercive oppression of nationalism and fascism.[344]

Joyce's politics is reflected in his attitude toward his British passport. He wrote about the negative effects of British occupation in Ireland and was sympathetic to the attempts of the Irish to free themselves from it.[345] In 1907, he expressed his support for the early Sinn Féin movement before the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922.[346] However, throughout his life, Joyce refused to exchange his British passport for an Irish one.[347] When he had a choice, he opted to renew his British passport in 1935 instead of obtaining one from the Irish Free State,[348][an] and he chose to keep it in 1940 when accepting an Irish passport could have helped him to leave Vichy France more easily.[350] His refusal to change his passport was partly due to the advantages that a British passport gave him internationally,[351] his being out of sympathy with the violence of Irish politics,[352] and his dismay over the Irish Free State's political alignment with the Catholic Church.[353][ao]

Religious views

 
The interior of the Greek Orthodox Church of San Nicolò in Trieste, where Joyce occasionally attended services[355]

Joyce had a complex relationship with religion.[356] Firsthand statements by him[ap] and Stanislaus,[aq] attest that he did not consider himself a Catholic, though his work is deeply influenced by Catholicism.[359] In particular, his intellectual foundations were grounded in his early Jesuitical education.[360][ar] Even after he left Ireland, he sometimes went to church. When living in Trieste, he woke up early to attend Catholic Mass on Holy Thursday and Good Friday[362][as] or occasionally attended Eastern Orthodox services, stating that he liked the ceremonies better.[364]

Some critics have argued that Joyce firmly rejected the Catholic faith.[365] He lapsed from the Church early in life [366] and Nora refused to allow a Catholic service when he died.[at] His works frequently critique, ridicule, and blaspheme Catholicism,[368] and he appropriates Catholic rituals and concepts for his own artistic purposes.[369] Nevertheless, Catholic critics have argued that Joyce never fully abandoned his faith,[370] wrestling with it in his writings and becoming increasingly reconciled with it.[371] They argue that Ulysses and Finnegans Wake are expressions of a Catholic sensibility,[372] insisting that the critical views of religion expressed by the characters in his novel do not represent the views of Joyce the author.[373]

Other critics have suggested that Joyce's apparent apostasy was less a denial of faith than a transmutation,[374] a criticism of the Church's adverse impact on spiritual life, politics, and personal development.[375] Joyce's attitude toward Catholicism has been described as an enigma in which there are two Joyces: a modern one who resisted the power of Catholicism and another who maintained his allegiance to its traditions.[376] He has been compared to the medieval episcopi vagantes (wandering bishops), who left their discipline but not their cultural heritage of thought.[377]

Joyce's responses to questions about his faith were often ambiguous. For example, during an interview after the completion of Ulysses, Joyce was asked, "When did you leave the Catholic Church?" He answered, "That's for the Church to say."[378]

Major works

Dubliners

主条目：Dubliners
 
First edition of Dubliners, 1914

Dubliners is a collection of 15 short stories first published in 1914,[379] that form a naturalistic depiction of Irish middle-class life in and around the city in the early 20th century. The tales were written when Irish nationalism and the search for national identity was at its peak. Joyce holds up a mirror to that identity as a first step in the spiritual liberation of Ireland.[380][au] The stories centre on Joyce's idea of an epiphany: a moment when a character experiences a life-changing self-understanding or illumination. Many of the characters in Dubliners later appear in minor roles in Joyce's novel Ulysses.[382] The initial stories are narrated by child protagonists. Later stories deal with the lives and concerns of progressively older people. This aligns with Joyce's tripartite division of the collection into childhood, adolescence, and maturity.[383]

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

主条目：A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, published in 1916, is a shortened rewrite of the novel Stephen Hero, which was abandoned in 1905. It is a Künstlerroman, a kind of coming-of-age novel depicting the childhood and adolescence of the protagonist Stephen Dedalus and his gradual growth into artistic self-consciousness.[384] It functions both as an autobiographical fiction of the author and a biography of the fictional protagonist.[385] Some hints of the techniques Joyce frequently employed in later works, such as stream of consciousness, interior monologue, and references to a character's psychic reality rather than to his external surroundings are evident throughout this novel.[386]

Exiles and poetry

主条目：Chamber Music (poetry collection)和Pomes Penyeach

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, Exiles, begun shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 and published in 1918. A study of a husband-and-wife relationship, the play looks back to "The Dead" (the final story in Dubliners) and forward to Ulysses, which Joyce began around the time of the play's composition.[387]

He published three books of poetry.[388] The first full-length collection was Chamber Music (1907), which consisted of 36 short lyrics. It led to his inclusion in the Imagist Anthology, edited by Ezra Pound, a champion of Joyce's work. Other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime includes "Gas from a Burner" (1912), Pomes Penyeach (1927), and "Ecce Puer" (written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father). These were published by the Black Sun Press in Collected Poems (1936).[389]

Ulysses

主条目：Ulysses (novel)
 
First edition of Ulysses published by Shakespeare & Company, 1922

The action of Ulysses starts on 16 June 1904 at 8 am and ends sometime after 2 am the following morning. Much of it occurs inside the minds of the characters, who are portrayed through techniques such as interior monologue, dialogue, and soliloquy. The novel consists of 18 episodes, each covering roughly one hour of the day using a unique literary style.[390] Joyce structured each chapter to refer to an individual episode in Homer's Odyssey, as well as a specific colour, a particular art or science, and a bodily organ.[av] Ulysses sets the characters and incidents of the Odyssey in 1904 Dublin, representing Odysseus (Ulysses), Penelope, and Telemachus in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife Molly Bloom, and Stephen Dedalus. It uses humour–[393] including parody, satire and comedy– to contrast the novel's characters with their Homeric models. Joyce played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles[394] so the work could be read independently of its Homeric structure.[395]

Ulysses can be read as a study of Dublin in 1904, exploring various aspects of the city's life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe, it could be rebuilt using his work as a model.[396] To achieve this sense of detail, he relied on his memory, what he heard other people remember, and his readings to create a sense of fastidious detail.[397] Joyce regularly used the 1904 edition of Thom's Directory—a work that listed the owners and tenants of every residential and commercial property in the city—to ensure his descriptions were accurate.[398] This combination of kaleidoscopic writing, reliance on a formal schema to structure the narrative, and exquisite attention to detail represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of 20th-century modernist literature.[399]

Finnegans Wake

主条目：Finnegans Wake

Finnegans Wake is an experimental novel that pushes stream of consciousness[400] and literary allusion[401] to their extremes. Although the work can be read from beginning to end, Joyce's writing transforms traditional ideas of plot and character development through his wordplay, allowing the book to be read nonlinearly. Much of the wordplay stems from the work being written in peculiar and obscure English, based mainly on complex multilevel puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than, that used by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky[402] and draws on a wide range of languages.[403] The associative nature of its language has led to it being interpreted as the story of a dream.[404][aw]

The metaphysics of Giordano Bruno of Nola, who Joyce had read in his youth,[405] plays an important role in Finnegans Wake, as it provides the framework for how the identities of the characters interplay and are transformed.[406] Giambattista Vico's cyclical view of history—in which civilisation rises from chaos, passes through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapses back into chaos—structures the text's narrative,[407] as evidenced by the opening and closing words of the book: Finnegans Wake opens with the words "riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs"[408] and ends "A way a lone a last a loved a long the".[409] In other words, the book ends with the beginning of a sentence and begins with the end of the same sentence, turning the narrative into one great cycle.[410]

Legacy

 
Statue of James Joyce on North Earl Street, Dublin, by Marjorie Fitzgibbon

Joyce's work still has a profound influence on contemporary culture.[411][ax] Ulysses is a model for fiction writers, particularly its explorations into the power of language.[399] Its emphasis on the details of everyday life has opened up new possibilities of expression for authors, painters and film-makers.[412] It retains its prestige among readers, often ranking high on 'Great Book' lists.[413] Joyce's innovations extend beyond English literature: his writing has been an inspiration for Latin American writers,[414] and Finnegans Wake has become one of the key texts for French post-structuralism.[415]

The open-ended form of Joyce's novels keeps them open to constant reinterpretation.[416] They inspire an increasingly global community of literary critics. Joyce's studies—based on a relatively small canon of three novels, a small short story collection, one play, and two small books of poems—have generated over 15,000 articles, monographs, theses, translations, and editions.[417]

In popular culture, the work and life of Joyce is celebrated annually on 16 June, known as Bloomsday, in Dublin and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.[418]

Collections, museums, and study centres

The National Library of Ireland holds a large collection of Joycean material including manuscripts and notebooks, much of it available online.[419] A joint venture between the library and University College Dublin, the Museum of Literature Ireland, [420] the majority of whose exhibits are about Joyce and his work, has both a small permanent Joyce-related collection, and borrows from its parent institutions; its displays include "Copy No. 1" of Ulysses.[421] Dedicated centres in Dublin include the James Joyce Centre in North Great George's Street, the James Joyce Tower and Museum in Sandycove at the Martello tower where Joyce briefly lived and where he set the opening scene in Ulysses, and the Dublin Writers Museum.[422] University College London holds the only major research collection of Joyce's work in the United Kingdom, including first editions of all of Joyce's major works, many other editions and translations, as well as critical and background literature.[423]

Bibliography

Novel Series

Stephen Dedalus

  1. Stephen Hero (precursor to A Portrait; written 1904–06, published posthumously 1944)
  2. A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (novel, 1916)
  3. Ulysses (novel, 1922)

Finnegan

  1. Finn's Hotel (Ithys Press, 2013)
  2. Finnegans Wake (1939, restored 2012)

Short Stories

Poetry collections

Play

Posthumous Non-fiction

  • The Critical Writings of James Joyce (Eds. Ellsworth Mason and Richard Ellmann, 1959)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 1 (Ed. Stuart Gilbert, 1957)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 2 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
  • Letters of James Joyce Vol. 3 (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1966)
  • Selected Letters of James Joyce (Ed. Richard Ellmann, 1975)
  • Collected Epiphanies of James Joyce: A Critical Edition (Eds. Angus McFadzean, Morris Beja, Sangam Macduff). University Press of Florida, 2024

注释

  1. ^ Joyce was named for his paternal grandfather,[3] but his middle name was mistakenly registered as Augusta at the time of his birth.[4]
  2. ^ Joyce acquired his saint's name Aloysius at his confirmation[5] in 1891.[6]
  3. ^ Joyce's fear of dogs may have been exaggerated.[10]
  4. ^ According to Irish artist Arthur Power, Joyce, who sometimes took his children and Power on a ride, once ordered the driver to turn home when a storm broke out. When Power asked "Why are you so afraid of thunder? Your children don't mind it." Joyce answered "Ah, they have no religion".[13]
  5. ^ University College was part of the Royal University of Ireland.[28] It became University College Dublin, one of three colleges in the new National University of Ireland, in 1908. The others were University College Galway and University College Cork.[29]
  6. ^ Ibsen did not reply to the fan letter,[35] but he had previously asked the Scottish critic William Archer to thank Joyce for his "very benevolent" review.[36]
  7. ^ Joyce's dedicatory page to the play is all that is left: "To My own Soul I dedicate the first true work of my life."[39]
  8. ^ Joyce's mother was initially diagnosed with cirrhosis of the liver;[54] Ellmann says that it became apparent she was actually dying of cancer.[55] This may reflect what Joyce's family came to believe,[56] but Gorman's 1939 biography of Joyce, which was edited by Joyce,[57] states that she died of cirrhosis,[58] as does her death certificate.[59]
  9. ^ Gorman writes: "Mary Jane Joyce was dying in the sanctity of the bosom of her Church ... and her eldest son could only grieve that the two wills could not meet and mix. He was incapable of bending his knee to the powerful phantom, that once acknowledged, would devour him as it had devoured so many about him and half a civilisation as well."[63]
  10. ^ Though there is substantial circumstantial evidence supporting that date,[70] there is no direct documentary evidence confirming that Joyce and Nora's walk on the Ringsend actually occurred on this day.[71]
  11. ^ Composer Otto Luening, who knew Joyce in Trieste, described his voice as being "mellow and pleasant ... a nice Irish-Italian tenor ... very good for Italian operas of the 17th and 18th centuries".[78]
  12. ^ The details of what happened immediately after the contest are unclear.[84] For example, Oliver Gogarty claims Joyce threw his medal into the Liffey,[85] but Joyce apparently gave the medal to his Aunt Josephine,[86] and it ended up being bought by the choreographer Michael Flatley at an auction in 2004.[87]
  13. ^ Stephen Hero was published after Joyce's death in 1944.[94]
  14. ^ Though Joyce parodied Yeats in "Holy Office", he admired two short stories Yeats had written, "Tables of the Law" and "Adoration of the Magi". The former he memorised by heart and references to both were integrated into Joyce's "Stephen Hero".[97] Joyce admired Yeats's 1899 play The Countess Cathleen as well, which he translated into Italian in 1911.[98]
  15. ^ The title Chamber Music had been suggested by Stanislaus,[103] but Joyce accepted it as a double entendre, implying both the sound of chamber music and the sound of urine falling in a chamber pot.[104]
  16. ^ According to Stanislaus, Russell and Joyce became acquainted through a common interest in theosophy, which he briefly explored after his mother's death.[107] Joyce's knowledge of theosophy appears in his later writing, particularly Finnegans Wake.[108]
  17. ^ Trieste is now in Italy.
  18. ^ After less than an hour in Trieste, Joyce found himself arrested and jailed when he got into the middle of an altercation between three sailors of the Royal Navy and Austro-Hungarian police. He had to be released by the British Vice-Consul.[118]
  19. ^ It is now called Pula and is in Croatia.
  20. ^ It was later rumoured that Joyce had been evicted from Pola when the Austrians—having discovered an espionage ring in the city—expelled all aliens, but the evidence suggests that he moved because the position in Trieste was better.[126]
  21. ^ Joyce's son was named Giorgio when he was born, but later preferred to be called George.[130]
  22. ^ Joyce's Triestine colleague, the writer Italo Svevo states that with the exception of some stories of Dubliners and the "songs" of Chamber Music, "All his other works down to Ulysses were born in Trieste".[141]
  23. ^ Regarding the role of Trieste on the creation of Ulysses, Svevo states "To the Irish critic [Earnest] Boyd, who asserted that Ulysses was merely the product of pre-war thought in Ireland, Valery Larbaud replied 'Yes, in so far as it came to maturity in Trieste'."[146]
  24. ^ In October, Joyce wrote "I have a new story for Dubliners in my head. It deals with Mr. [Alfred] Hunter", the man who was picked him after he was beaten in 1904. In November, he first mentioned the title of the story as "Ulysses", and in Feb 1907, he mentioned "Ulysses" along with "The Dead" and three other stories that never appeared.[159]
  25. ^ Following Richard Ellmann's biography, a number of later biographers also state the attack was due to rheumatic fever,[175] but evidence suggests that syphilis may have been the cause.[176] It may have been the cause of Joyce's eye problems too.[177] The physician J. B. Lyons makes a case that the cause was Reiter's syndrome,[178] though he later suggested that this occurred as an aftereffect of a venereal infection.[179]
  26. ^ Lucia was named after the patron saint of eyesight.[182]
  27. ^ Eva became homesick and returned to Dublin after little more than a year,[197] but Eileen stayed on the continent, eventually marrying a Czech bank cashier, Frantisek Schaurek.[198] The Irish actor Paddy Joyce is their son.[199]
  28. ^ It was in the midst of these frustrations with Richards in 1911 that Joyce was alleged to have thrown the manuscript of the first three chapters of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man into a stove fire, only to have it rescued by Eileen.[205]
  29. ^ The literary critic Mary Colum, who was personally well-acquainted with Joyce, reports him as saying: "Pound took me out of the gutter."[210]
  30. ^ In 1920, Joyce wrote that the Irish press reported him as the founder of Dada.[237]
  31. ^ Budgen wrote: "Joyce, if asked, what he did during the Great War, could reply: 'I wrote Ulysses.'"[246]
  32. ^ Quinn was an early supporter of Joyce's work in the United States. (cf., Quinn 1917)
  33. ^ Ernest Hemingway became involved in smuggling copies of Ulysses into the United States from Canada.[283]
  34. ^ In March 1923, Joyce wrote "Yesterday I wrote two pages—the first I have since the final Yes of Ulysses. Having found a pen, with some difficulty I copied them out in a large handwriting on a double sheet of foolscap so that I could read them. Il lupo perde il pelo ma non il vizio, the Italians say. 'The wolf may lose his skin but not his vice' or 'the leopard cannot change his spots."[287]
  35. ^ Joyce met T. S. Eliot in Paris in 1923. Eliot became a strong advocate of Joyce's work, arranging publication of parts of Work in Progress, the first complete edition of Finnegans Wake with Faber and Faber and editing the first anthology of Joyce's work the year after his death.[297]
  36. ^ He still retained his sense of humor and appreciation of music during these difficult times. For example, Joyce heard the composer Othmar Schoeck's Song Cycle based on the poems of Gottfried Keller, Lebendig begraben [Buried Alive] while visiting Zürich in 1935. Afterwards, he went to Schoeck's house unannounced and dressed as a tramp to introduce himself to him. Afterwards, he obtained Gottfried Keller's poems and began to translate them.[309]
  37. ^ Jung also states: "It would never occur to me to class Ulysses as a product of schizophrenia ... Ulysses is no more a pathological product than modern art as a whole."[313]
  38. ^ A footnote that Joyce allowed in Gorman's biography,[329] which was written in the 1930s,[330] states: "Among the many whose works he [Joyce] had read may be mentioned Most, Malatesta, Stirner, Bakunin, Élisée Reclus, Spencer and Benjamin Tucker".[331]
  39. ^ In 1918, he declared himself "against every state"[338] and later in the 1930s, he said of the defeated multi-ethnic Hapsburg Empire : "They called the Empire a ramshackle empire, I wish to God there were more such empires."[339]
  40. ^ When Joyce had to renew his passport while residing in Paris during 1935, he wrote Georgio afterwards: "Giorni fa dovevo far rinnovare il mio passaporto. L'impiegato mi disse che aveva ordini di mandare gente come me alla legazione irlandese. Insistetti ed ottenni un altro." [A few days ago I had to have my [British] passport renewed. The clerk told me that he had orders to send people like me to the Irish legation. I insisted and got another one.][349]
  41. ^ Svevo writes: "He is twice a rebel, against England and against Ireland. He hates England and would like to transform Ireland. Yet he belongs so much to England that like a great many of his Irish predecessors he will fill pages of English literary history".[354]
  42. ^ In 1904 Joyce declared to Nora, who he had just recently met: "My mind rejects the whole present social order and Christianity—home, the recognised virtues, classes of life and religious doctrines ... Six years ago I left the Catholic church, hating it most fervently. I found it impossible for me to remain in it on account of the impulses of my nature. I made secret war upon it when I was a student and declined to accept the positions it offered me. By doing this I made myself a beggar, but I retained my pride. Now I make open war upon it by what I write and say and do."[357]
  43. ^ Stanislaus wrote: "It has become a fashion with some of my brother's critics ... to represent him as a man pining for the ancient Church he had abandoned, and at a loss for moral support without the religion in which he was bred. Nothing could be further from the truth. I am convinced that there was never any crisis of belief. The vigor of life within him drove him out of the church".[358]
  44. ^ Colum states: "I have never known anyone with a mind so fundamentally Catholic in structure as Joyce's own, or one on whom the Church, its ceremonies, symbols, and theological declarations had made such an impress".[361]
  45. ^ Joyce told Stanislaus "The Mass on Good Friday seems to me a very great drama."[363]
  46. ^ When a Catholic priest offered to perform a religious service for Joyce's burial, Nora declined, saying, "I couldn't do that to him."[367]
  47. ^ Svevo writes that "what is fundamental in Joyce can be found entire in [Dubliners]".[381]
  48. ^ This structure was not part of the original conception of Ulysses,[391] but by 1921, Joyce was circulating two versions of this structure, known as the Linati schema and Gilbert schema.[392]
  49. ^ Attridge 2013 also critiques interpreting Finnegans Wake as a dream narrative.
  50. ^ See TMO n.d. and Nastasi 2014 for examples of various authors' responses to Joyce.

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  259. ^ McCourt 1999a，第85页.
  260. ^ Bowker 2012，第273, 275页; Gibson 2006，第132页.
  261. ^ Gorman 1939，第270页.
  262. ^ Bowker 2012，第273–274页; Gibson 2006，第132页.
  263. ^ Livak 2012，第143页.
  264. ^ Beach 1959，第36–38页; Bowker 2012，第276–277页; Gibson 2006，第134页.
  265. ^ Bowker 2012，第292, 297页.
  266. ^ Gorman 1939，第286页.
  267. ^ Bowker 2012，第274页; Gibson 2006，第134–135页.
  268. ^ Monnier & Beach 1946，第430页: see Larbaud 1922
  269. ^ Beja 1992，第100页; Ellmann 1982，第499页.
  270. ^ Gibson 2006，第133页; Harrington 1998，第841–842页.
  271. ^ 271.0 271.1 Rainey 1996，第535页.
  272. ^ Beja 1992，第72页.
  273. ^ Vanderham 1997，第6,29页; Weir 2000，第389, 391–392页.
  274. ^ Anderson 1921.
  275. ^ Ellmann 1982，第502–503页.
  276. ^ Bowker 2012，第286页; Ellmann 1982，第504页.
  277. ^ Beja 1992，第83页; Bowker 2012，第286页.
  278. ^ Medina Casado 2000，第479页.
  279. ^ Beach 1959，第47页; Beja 1992，第85页; Bowker 2012，第288页; Ellmann 1982，第504页.
  280. ^ Bowker 2012，第289–290页; Ellmann 1982，第504–506页.
  281. ^ Bowker 2012，第315页; Ellmann 1982，第506页.
  282. ^ Beja 1992，第86页.
  283. ^ Beja 1992，第85页; Bowker 2012，第312–313页.
  284. ^ Beja 1992，第93–94页.
  285. ^ Medina Casado 2000，第93–94页.
  286. ^ Bowker 2012，第318页; Davies 1982，第307页.
  287. ^ Joyce 1957，第202页: Letter to Harriet Shaw Weaver, March 1923
  288. ^ Bowker 2012，第322页; Ellmann 1982，第522页.
  289. ^ Joyce 1966b，第102页: Letter from Stanislaus Joyce, 7 August 1924; Pound 1967，第228页: Letter to James Joyce, 15 November 1926; Ellmann 1982，第590页: Letter from Weaver, 4 February 1927
  290. ^ Beja 1992，第92页; Bulson 2006，第94页.
  291. ^ Ellmann 1982，第613页.
  292. ^ Ellmann 1982，第613页; Henke 1991，第613–615页.
  293. ^ Dilks 2004，第720页.
  294. ^ Weisenfarth 1991，第100页.
  295. ^ Beja 1992，第121页.
  296. ^ Loukopoulou 2011，第699–700页.
  297. ^ Dalton 1968，第79页; Nadel 1990，第512–513页; Also see Joyce's note mentioned in Fahy 1993，第8页 regarding the publication date of Finnegans Wake
  298. ^ Beja 1992，第78页; Bowker 2012，第400页; Davies 1982，第334页; Ellmann 1982，第622页.
  299. ^ Gibson 2006，第151–152页.
  300. ^ Birmingham 2014，第256页.
  301. ^ Beja 1992，第78页; Bowker 2012，第320页.
  302. ^ Beja 1992，第93页; Bowker 2012，第364页; Gibson 2006，第149页.
  303. ^ Ellmann 1982，第632页; Osteen 1995a，第14–15页.
  304. ^ Petroski 1974，第1024页.
  305. ^ Ellmann 1982，第622页; Maddox 1989，第255页.
  306. ^ Bowker 2011，第673页; Ellmann 1982，第622页.
  307. ^ Bowker 2012，第419页; Loukopoulou 2011，第687页.
  308. ^ Bowker 2011，第675-675页.
  309. ^ Ellmann 1982，第669页; Gerber 2010，第479页.
  310. ^ Fischer 2021，第22–23页.
  311. ^ Beja 1992，第115页.
  312. ^ Jung 1952，第116–117页; Shloss 2005，第278页.
  313. ^ Jung 1952，第117页.
  314. ^ Shloss 2005，第297页.
  315. ^ Bowker 2012; Shloss 2005，第7页.
  316. ^ Beja 1992，第122页.
  317. ^ Bowker 2012，第500页; Nadel 1986，第306–308页.
  318. ^ Gibson 2006，第155–156页.
  319. ^ Ellmann 1982，第740–741页.
  320. ^ Ellmann 1982，第743页.
  321. ^ 321.0 321.1 321.2 Jordan 2018.
  322. ^ Bowker 2012，第534页.
  323. ^ Horgan-Jones 2019.
  324. ^ The Irish Times 2019.
  325. ^ Manganiello 1980，第2页; MacCabe 2003，第xv页; Orr 2008，第3页.
  326. ^ Cheng 1995，第1–2页; Deane 1997，第32页; Gibson 2006，第32页; Kiberd 1996，第10页; Seidel 2008.
  327. ^ Fairhall 1993，第50页; Scholes 1992，第167–168页; Sultan 1987，第208页.
  328. ^ Fairhall 1993，第50页; Manganiello 1980，第72页.
  329. ^ Rabaté 2001，第27页.
  330. ^ Nadel 1991，第91页.
  331. ^ Gorman 1939，第183,fn1页.
  332. ^ Caraher 2009，第288页.
  333. ^ Sultan 1987，第209页.
  334. ^ Gibson 2006，第83页; MacCabe 2003，第160页; McCourt 2000，第93页.
  335. ^ Fairhall 1993，第50页; Scholes 1992，第165页.
  336. ^ Gibson 2002，第13页; Segall 1993，第6页; Seidel 2008，第7–9页.
  337. ^ Fairhall 1993，第54–55页; Caraher 2009，第288页.
  338. ^ Fairhall 1993，第52页.
  339. ^ Robinson 2001，第332页.
  340. ^ Segall 1993，第6页.
  341. ^ Ellmann 1977，第80,86页; Gibson 2002，第13页; Watson 1987，第41页.
  342. ^ Gibson 2006，第164–165页; Nolan 1995，第143页: "The Irish Civil War also forms an integral component of the fraternal antagonism between the sons of the Wakean family."
  343. ^ Cheng 1995，第251–252页; MacCabe 2003，第xv–xvi页.
  344. ^ Sollers 1978，第108页.
  345. ^ de Sola Rodstein 1998，第155页.
  346. ^ Gibson 2006，第82页; Pelaschiar 1999，第64页.
  347. ^ Davies 1982，第299页.
  348. ^ Bowker 2012，第475页.
  349. ^ Joyce 1966b，第353–354页: Letter to Georgio (Postscript to missing letter), about 10 April 1935
  350. ^ Bowker 2012; Ellmann 1982，第738页.
  351. ^ Bowker 2011，第669页; Davies 1982，第299页.
  352. ^ Davies 1982，第298–299页; de Sola Rodstein 1998，第146页; Seidel 2008，第10页.
  353. ^ Lernout 2010，第210页: "To the dismay of Joyce and other intellectuals, the Irish Free State of 1922 adopted the catholic culture that had already been dominant in the powerful coalition between the bishops and the nationalist party".
  354. ^ Svevo 1927，第15–16 页.
  355. ^ McCourt 2000，第50页.
  356. ^ Van Mierlo 2017，第3页.
  357. ^ Joyce 1966a，第48–49页: Letter to Nora Barnacle, 29 August 1904
  358. ^ Joyce 1958，第130页.
  359. ^ Eco 1982，第2页.
  360. ^ Ellmann 1982，第27页; Gorman 1939，第26页; Hederman 1982，第20页; Mahon 2004，第349页; Sullivan 1958，第7–8页.
  361. ^ Colum 1947，第381页.
  362. ^ Francini Bruni 1922，第35–36页; Joyce 1958，第105页.
  363. ^ Joyce 1958，第104页.
  364. ^ Joyce Schaurek 1963，第64页.
  365. ^ Benstock 1961，第417页; Ellmann 1982b，§3: "Joyce wrote to Nora. 'Now I make open war upon it [The Catholic Church] by what I write and say and do.' His actions accorded with this policy."; Lernout 2010，第6页.
  366. ^ Ellmann 1982，第65–66页; Lernout 2010，第6页.
  367. ^ Ellmann 1982，第742页: citing a 1953 interview with Giorgio Joyce.
  368. ^ Benstock 1961，第417, 437页; Cunningham 2007，第509, 512n页; Lang 1993，第15页.
  369. ^ Ellmann 1982b，§7: "His most adroit manoeuvre is taking over its [The Catholic Church's] vocabulary for his own secular purposes."; Hibbert 2011，第198页; Lang 1993，第15页.
  370. ^ Noon 1957，第14–15页; Strong 1949，第11–12页.
  371. ^ Boyle 1978，第x–xi页; Strong 1949，第158–161页.
  372. ^ Segall 1993，第140页.
  373. ^ Segall 1993，第160页.
  374. ^ Ellmann 1982，第65–66页; Jung 1952，第120页:cf., an earlier translation of Jung's statement (Jung 1949，第10页, also quoted in Noon 1957，第15页)
  375. ^ Hibbert 2011，第198–199页; Morse 1959.
  376. ^ Gibson 2006，第41页; Hughs 1992，第40–41页.
  377. ^ Eco 1982，第4页.
  378. ^ Davison 1998，第78页.
  379. ^ Osteen 1995b，第483–484页.
  380. ^ Gibson 2006，第73页; Joyce 1957，第62–63页: Letter to Grant Richards, 23 June 1906
  381. ^ Svevo 1927，第20页.
  382. ^ Groden n.d.
  383. ^ Walzl 1977:cf., Halper 1979，第476–477页
  384. ^ Rando 2016，第47页.
  385. ^ Riquelme 1983，第51页.
  386. ^ Spender 1970，第749页.
  387. ^ Clark 1968，第69页.
  388. ^ CI n.d.
  389. ^ Doyle 1965，第90页.
  390. ^ Kimpel 1975，第283–285页.
  391. ^ Fludernik 1986，第184页; Groden 2007，第223页; Litz 1964，第34页.
  392. ^ Emerson 2017，第55页.
  393. ^ Kimpel 1975，第311–313页.
  394. ^ Attridge 1997，第27页; Dettmar 1992，第285页.
  395. ^ Attridge 1997，第27页; Dettmar 1992，第285页; Wykes 1968，第305页.
  396. ^ Budgen 1934，第67–68页.
  397. ^ Ellmann 1982，第363–366页.
  398. ^ Hegglund 2003，第168–167页.
  399. ^ 399.0 399.1 Sherry 2004，第102页.
  400. ^ Kumar 1957，第30页; Thompson 1964，第80页.
  401. ^ Atherton 1960，第22–23页.
  402. ^ Attridge 2007，第85–86页.
  403. ^ Schotter 2010，第89页.
  404. ^ Attridge 2013，第195-197页.
  405. ^ Downes 2003，第37–38页; Gorman 1939，第332–333页; Rabaté 1989，第31页.
  406. ^ Atherton 1960，第36–37页; Beckett 1929，第17页.
  407. ^ Atherton 1960，第29–31页; Beckett 1929，第17页; Gorman 1939，第332–333页.
  408. ^ Joyce 1939，第3页: Atherton 1960 points out that "vicus" is a pun on Vico.
  409. ^ Joyce 1939，第628页.
  410. ^ Shockley 2009，第104页.
  411. ^ Attridge 1997，第https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani0000unse_s3a6/page/n19 1]页.
  412. ^ Attridge 1997，第1页.
  413. ^ Mullin 2014.
  414. ^ Levitt 2006，第390–391页.
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  416. ^ Attridge 1997，第3页.
  417. ^ Latham 2009，第148页.
  418. ^ Murphy 2014.
  419. ^ Killeen 2012.
  420. ^ Harnett 2019.
  421. ^ MoLI n.d.
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  423. ^ UCL 2016.

来源

书籍
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  • Thompson, William Irwin. The language of Finnegans Wake. Sewanee Review. 1964, 72 (1): 78–90. JSTOR 27540957. 
  • Walkiewicz, E. P. Joyce/Pound: Dublin '82. Paideuma: Modern and Contemporary Poetry and Poetics. 1982, 11 (3): 511–517. JSTOR 24725366. 
  • Walzl, Florence L. The life chronology of Dubliners. James Joyce Quarterly. 1977, 14 (4): 408–415. JSTOR 25476081. 
  • Weir, David. What did he know and when did he know it: The Little Review,, Joyce, and Ulysses. James Joyce Quarterly. 2000, 37 (3/4): 389–412. JSTOR 25477749. 
  • Weisenfarth, Joseph. Fargobawlers: James Joyce and Ford Madox Ford. James Joyce Quarterly. 1991, 14 (2): 95–116. JSTOR 23539891. 
  • Witemeyer, Hugh. "He gave the name": Herbert Gorman's rectifications of James Joyce: His First Forty Years. James Joyce Quarterly. 1995, 32 (3/4): 523–532. JSTOR 25473660. 
  • Wykes, David. The Odyssey in Ulysses. Texas Studies in Literature and Language. 1968, 10 (2): 301–316. JSTOR 40753991. 
  • Zanotti, Serenella. An Italianate Irishman: Joyce and the Languages of Trieste. James Joyce Quarterly. 2001, 38 (3/4): 411–430. JSTOR 25477816. 
在线来源



主要来源
文学作品

外部链接

关于James Joyce
的图书馆资源
James Joyce的作品

Joyce Papers, National Library of Ireland

Electronic editions

Resources

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